I have nothing against Native Americans.  But, their gas and souvenir scam ticked me off.  Why are so many able-bodied people sitting around making kachina dolls?  There are so many opportunities available for Native Americans.  They can attend college on scholarships for virtually nothing.  They can go to trade schools and learn a skill.  But still they choose to make dolls.  I started to wonder if Native Americans, living on reservations, are perhaps oblivious to the opportunities that areout in the real world?  Maybe they don’t know if they are Native Americans living on a reservation.

I made up a little quiz that may help. If you answer yes to any of the questions below, you may be a Native American.

1. Do your friends live a short horseback ride away?
2. Do people call your grandfather, Chief?
3. Was archery your favorite class in kindergarten?
4. Do some of your relatives have the first name of Running?
5. Are you fond of eating and wearing buffalo, deer and elk?
6.  Does your grandmother wear her hair in a long braid and smoke a pipe?

Your resume should not include entries like this:

1.      Current work history- kachina doll maker

2.       Previous work history-major league baseball mascot, hunter, arrow sharpener

If you are a Native American and would like to further your education, you can.  Climb your kiva ladder and exit the pueblo.  Pack your Navajo blanket and moccasins and head for the college of your choice.  Pick an interesting major and learn things that are not related to your heritage.  Yes, your heritage is important but it is also hindering your ability to exist. 

Get an architectural degree. Learn why not all homes are made of adobe brick.  What about finance?  Learn why trading beads for land was a mistake.  Wampum is no longer used to purchase goods. (I learned that while watching F Troop on TV)  Marketing can be a fun field to get into.  Learn how to sell your turquoise jewelry in chain stores to increase profits.  Outdoor recreation degrees can teach you to build stronger canoes and rafts.  Learn that tents come in a variety of shapes and sizes, not just cone-shaped. A park ranger or wilderness guide can surely intrigue you.  Your people called you a scout but you can evolve into a guide.  Hospitality and hotel management degrees can prepare you to work in a casino rather than be a high-stakes player in one.  Culinary arts can show you how to prepare foods other than wild game.  Fashion design can help to eliminate a wardrobe made up of fringed leather jackets and feather-embellished headbands. An aviation degree can teach you how to fly higher than an eagle.  A healthcare field can educate you in the hazards of smoking a peace pipe and drinking firewater.

 It is time to stop sobbing about the near extinction of the buffaloes and the polluting of the air, water and land.  Learn to increase the buffalo herd and how to clean the air and streams.  Don’t rely on government grants to constantly bail you out. Stop calling yourselves Native Americans, you are Indians, always were and always will be.  Changing your name does not make us feel sorry for you.  We know you lived in the United States before we did.  We can’t help you didn’t have the skills or knowledge to grow and build a mighty nation.  Perhaps you should have gone to college!

Yet simply no. The particular outcry is targeted using one Hispanic person known as Zimmerman which apparently photo a new African-American person known as Trayvon. Each living will be treasured, needless to say, yet just how could be the living of just one child a lot more treasured compared to the lifestyles of your hundred or so regarding some other African-Americans which perish daily at the hands of their particular medical doctors, oncologists and also pharmacists? FDA-approved medications eliminate 106, 000 Us citizens per year in line with the Log with the U . s . Health-related Connection. And also cancer malignancy demise disproportionately take place inside blacks as a result of long-term nutritional N deficit those types of together with dim pores and skin. In case you are inquisitive to learn exactly why, observe my own video clip reason concerning natural light and also nutritional N. This kind of video clip describes exactly why the particular cancer malignancy market won’t notify african american folks the reality concerning exactly why they want added nutritional N

Outrage will be strength, yet these kinds of strength has to be targeted on the proper targeted

A very important factor We have constantly appreciated in regards to the african american local community in the us will be their particular perception regarding brotherhood; the particular perception that when an individual strike certainly one of us all, an individual strike many of us! Durability by means of local community. We have been better once we work with each other as compared to when we all work inside seclusion. They’re dignified philosophies for almost any local community to check out, yet all of them are also effortlessly misdirected in the event the folks are not necessarily advised the complete fact.

Just what feel My partner and i declaring, specifically? The African-American local community could be a lot more warranted — and also probably help save a lot more lifestyles should they marched about Merck, Pfizer and also AstraZeneca. You would like to realize that is actually getting rid of the african american toddlers? Oahu is the vaccine organizations. The particular medicine organizations. The particular cancer malignancy centers. Inside the cancer malignancy market on your own, it really is well regarded that folks together with dim pores and skin have got long-term nutritional N insufficiencies in which increase cancer malignancy tumour progress. That is why cancer malignancy cancers are usually a lot more hostile inside african american people as compared to white-colored people.

The particular cancer malignancy market opinions african american folks since online business offerings being taken advantage of regarding funds. It really is a type of health-related enslavement, plus it continues on 7 days a week, year in year out, together with thousands of patients annually in america on your own, rather than an individual highly-visible african american local community head provides anything at all to state regarding it.

No less than not necessarily in which We have observed. In which will be Jesse Knutson around the problem regarding african american toddlers getting produced autistic simply by vaccines? In which could be the authority outcry contrary to the cancer malignancy market and its particular exploitation regarding african american females regarding income? In which will be the rallies, the particular baseball staff photograph ops, as well as the cathedral parties for those African-American guys, females and also youngsters that are sacrificed for the equipment regarding white-colored company income in which gets rid of 100 Trayvons per day around The usa?

The Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים‎‎ ISO 259-3 Yhudim Israeli pronunciation [jehuˈdim]), also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and an ethnoreligious group, originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, HP Pavilion dv7-4035tx Battery as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation.[2][3][4] Converts to Judaism, whose status as Jews within the Jewish ethnos is equal to those born into it, have been absorbed into the Jewish people throughout the millennia.

In Jewish tradition, Jewish ancestry is traced to the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, HP Pavilion dv7-4036tx Battery Isaac and Jacob in the second millennium BCE. The modern State of Israel defines itself as a Jewish state in its Basic Laws, and Israel’s Law of Return states: “Every Jew has the right to come to this country as an oleh.”[5] Israel is the only country where Jews are a majority of the population. Jews achieved political autonomy twice before in ancient historyHP Pavilion dv7-4038ca Battery. The first of these periods lasted from 1350[6] to 586 BCE, and encompassed the periods of the Judges, the United Monarchy, and the Divided Monarchy of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, ending with the destruction of the First Temple. The second was the period of the Hasmonean Kingdom spanning from 140 to 37 BCE. HP Pavilion dv7-4038tx BatterySince the destruction of the First Temple, most Jews have lived in diaspora.[7] A minority in every country in which they live (except Israel), they have frequently experienced persecution throughout history, resulting in a population that has fluctuated both in numbers and distribution over the centuries. HP Pavilion dv7-4039tx Battery

As of 2010, the world Jewish population was estimated at 13.4 million by the North American Jewish Data Bank,[1] or roughly 0.2% of the total world population. According to this report, about 42.5% of all Jews reside in Israel (5.7 million), and 39.3% in the United States (5.3 million), HP Pavilion dv7-4040ed Battery with most of the remainder living in Europe (1.5 million) and Canada (0.4 million).[1] These numbers include all those who consider themselves Jews, whether or not they are affiliated with a Jewish organization. The total world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure. In addition to issues with census methodology, HP Pavilion dv7-4040ek Battery there are halakhic disputes regarding who is a Jew and secular, political, and ancestral identification factors that may affect the figure considerably.[8]

Name and etymology

Main article: Jew (word) HP Pavilion dv7-4040sa Battery

The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, a loan from Old French giu, earlier juieu, ultimately from Latin Iudaeum. The Latin Iudaeus simply means Judaean, “from the land of Judaea”. The Latin term itself, like the corresponding Greek Ἰουδαῖος, is a loan from Aramaic Y’hūdāi, HP Pavilion dv7-4040sb Batterycorresponding to Hebrew: יְהוּדִי‎‎, Yehudi (sg.); יְהוּדִים, Yehudim (pl.), in origin the term for a member of the tribe of Judah or the people of the kingdom of Judah. The name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob.[9]

The Hebrew word for Jew, HP Pavilion dv7-4040sf Batteryיְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced [jehuˈdi], with the stress on the final syllable, in Israeli Hebrew, in its basic form.[10]

The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio (sg.); ג׳ודיוס, Djudios (pl.); Yiddish: ייִד Yid (sg.); ייִדן, Yidn (pl.).

The etymological equivalent is in use in other languages, HP Pavilion dv7-4040sp Battery e.g., “Yahoud”/”Yahoudi” (Arabic: يهود/يهودي‎) in Arabic language, “Jude” in German, “judeu” in Portuguese, “juif” in French, “jøde” in Danish, “judío” in Spanish, “joodse” in Dutch, etc., but derivations of the word “Hebrew” are also in use to describe a Jew, e.g., in Italian (Ebreo), in Persian (”Ebri/Ebrani” (Persian: عبری/عبرانی‎)) and Russian (Еврей, HP Pavilion dv7-4040ss Battery Yevrey).[11] The German word “Jude” is pronounced [ˈjuːdə], the corresponding adjective “jüdisch” [ˈjyːdɪʃ] (Jewish) is the origin of the word “Yiddish”.[12] (See Jewish ethnonyms for a full overview.)

According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition (2000):

It is widely recognized that the attributive use of the noun Jew, HP Pavilion dv7-4040tx Battery in phrases such as Jew lawyer or Jew ethics, is both vulgar and highly offensive. In such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a practice that carries risks of its own. In a sentence such as There are now several Jews on the council, which is unobjectionable, HP Pavilion dv7-4045ea Battery the substitution of a circumlocution like Jewish people or persons of Jewish background may in itself cause offense for seeming to imply that Jew has a negative connotation when used as a noun.[13]

Origins

See also: Origins of JudaismHP Pavilion dv7-4045eb Battery

According to their tradition, the Jewish people originated from the Israelites of the Southern Levant, who had several independent states before being overtaken first by the Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and later the Roman Empire, with a large portion of the population being scattered throughout the world. According to the Hebrew Bible, all Israelites were descended from Abraham, who was born in the Sumerian city of Ur, HP Pavilion dv7-4045er Batteryand migrated to Canaan (commonly known as the Land of Israel) with his family. Genetic studies on Jews show that most Jews worldwide do indeed bear a common genetic heritage which originates in the Middle East, and that they bear their strongest resemblance to the peoples of the Fertile Crescent, HP Pavilion dv7-4047ea Battery with only minor contribution from their host populations[14] (historically due to the taboo on intermarriage in Jewish tradition, the low number of converts to Judaism, as well as the general isolations and persecutions of Jews throughout history). According to some Biblical archaeologists, however, Israelite culture did not overtake the region, but rather grew out of Canaanite culture. HP Pavilion dv7-4050ea Battery

Judaism

Main article: Judaism

Judaism guides its adherents in both practice and belief, and has been called not only a religion, but also a “way of life,”[15] which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism, HP Pavilion dv7-4050eb Battery Jewish culture, and Jewish identity rather difficult. Throughout history, in eras and places as diverse as the ancient Hellenic world,[16] in Europe before and after The Age of Enlightenment (see Haskalah),[17] in Islamic Spain and Portugal,[18] in North Africa and the Middle East,[18] India,[19] and China, HP Pavilion dv7-4050ec Battery [20] or the contemporary United States[21] and Israel,[22] cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews or specific communities of Jews with their surroundings, HP Pavilion dv7-4050ed Battery others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to from the religion itself. This phenomenon has led to considerably different Jewish cultures unique to their own communities, each as authentically Jewish as the next.[23]

Who is a Jew? HP Pavilion dv7-4050ei Battery

Main article: Who is a Jew?

Judaism shares some of the characteristics of a nation, an ethnicity, a religion, and a culture, making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is usedHP Pavilion dv7-4050em Battery.[24] Generally, in modern secular usage, Jews include three groups: people who were born to a Jewish family regardless of whether or not they follow the religion; those who have some Jewish ancestral background or lineage (sometimes including those who do not have strictly matrilineal descent); HP Pavilion dv7-4050eo Batteryand people without any Jewish ancestral background or lineage who have formally converted to Judaism and therefore are followers of the religion.[25]

Historical definitions of Jewish identity have traditionally been based on halakhic definitions of matrilineal descent, and halakhic conversions. HP Pavilion dv7-4050er Battery Historical definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the oral tradition into the Babylonian Talmud. Interpretations of sections of the Tanakh, such as Deuteronomy 7:1–5, by learned Jewish sages, are used as a warning against intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews because “[the non-Jewish husband] will cause your child to turn away from Me and they will worship the gods of others.” HP Pavilion dv7-4050ev Battery Leviticus 24:10 says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an Egyptian man is “of the community of Israel.” This contrasts with Ezra 10:2–3, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their gentile wives and their children.[26][27] Since the Haskalah, these halakhic interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged.[28] HP Pavilion dv7-4050ez Battery

At times, conversion has accounted for a substantial part of Jewish population growth. In the first century of the Christian era, for example, the population more than doubled, from four to 8–10 million within the confines of the Roman Empire, in good part as a result of a wave of conversion.[29] HP Pavilion dv7-4050sg Battery

Ethnic divisions

Main article: Jewish ethnic divisions

Ashkenazi Jews of late 19th century Eastern Europe portrayed in Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur (1878), by Maurycy GottliebHP Pavilion dv7-4050sy Battery

Within the world’s Jewish population there are distinct ethnic divisions, most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating Israelite population, and subsequent independent evolutions. An array of Jewish communities were established by Jewish settlers in various places around the Old World, HP Pavilion dv7-4051nr Battery often at great distances from one another resulting in effective and often long-term isolation from each other. During the millennia of the Jewish diaspora the communities would develop under the influence of their local environments; political, cultural, natural, and populational. Today, manifestation of these differences among the Jews can be observed in Jewish cultural expressions of each community, HP Pavilion dv7-4051sg Battery including Jewish linguistic diversity, culinary preferences, liturgical practices, religious interpretations, as well as degrees and sources of genetic admixture.[30]

Jews are often identified as belonging to one of two major groups: the Ashkenazim, or “Germanics” (Ashkenaz meaning “Germany” in Medieval Hebrew, denoting their Central European base), HP Pavilion dv7-4052sg Battery and the Sephardim, or “Hispanics” (Sefarad meaning “Spain/Hispania” or “Iberia” in Hebrew, denoting their Spanish, and Portuguese, base). The Mizrahim, or “Easterners” (Mizrach being “East” in Hebrew), that is, the diverse collection of Middle Eastern and North African Jews, constitute a third major groupHP Pavilion dv7-4053cl Battery, although they are sometimes termed Sephardi for liturgical reasons.[31]

Smaller groups include, but are not restricted to, Indian Jews such as the Bene Israel, Bnei Menashe, Cochin Jews, and Bene Ephraim; the Romaniotes of Greece; the Italian Jews (”Italkim” or “Bené Roma”);HP Pavilion dv7-4053eg Battery the Teimanim from Yemen and Oman; various African Jews, including most numerously the Beta Israel of Ethiopia; and Chinese Jews, most notably the Kaifeng Jews, as well as various other distinct but now almost extinct communities.[32]

The divisions between all these groups are approximate and their boundaries are not always clear. HP Pavilion dv7-4054ca BatteryThe Mizrahim for example, are a heterogeneous collection of North African, Central Asian, Caucasian, and Middle Eastern Jewish communities that are often as unrelated to each other as they are to any of the earlier mentioned Jewish groups. In modern usage, however, the Mizrahim are sometimes termed Sephardi due to similar styles of liturgy, HP Pavilion dv7-4054eg Battery despite independent development from Sephardim proper. Thus, among Mizrahim there are Egyptian Jews, Iraqi Jews, Lebanese Jews, Kurdish Jews, Libyan Jews, Syrian Jews, Bukharian Jews, Mountain Jews, Georgian Jews, Iranian Jews and various others. The Teimanim from Yemen and Oman are sometimes included, although their style of liturgy is unique and they differ in respect to the admixture found among them to that found in Mizrahim. HP Pavilion dv7-4055sf BatteryIn addition, there is a differentiation made between Sephardi migrants who established themselves in the Middle East and North Africa after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal in the 1490s and the pre-existing Jewish communities in those regions.[32]

Despite this diversity, HP Pavilion dv7-4055sg Battery Ashkenazi Jews represent the bulk of modern Jewry, with at least 70% of Jews worldwide (and up to 90% prior to World War II and the Holocaust). As a result of their emigration from Europe, Ashkenazim also represent the overwhelming majority of Jews in the New World continents, in countries such as the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, HP Pavilion dv7-4057ca Battery and Brazil. In France, emigration of Jews from North Africa has led them to outnumber the Ashkenazim .[33] Only in Israel is the Jewish population representative of all groups, a melting pot independent of each group’s proportion within the overall world Jewish population.[34] HP Pavilion dv7-4057sf Battery

Languages

Main article: Jewish languages

Hebrew is the liturgical language of Judaism (termed l’shon ha-kodesh, “the holy tongue”), the language in which the Hebrew scriptures (Tanakh) were composed, and the daily speech of the Jewish people for centuries. HP Pavilion dv7-4058ca Battery By the 5th century BCE, Aramaic, a closely related tongue, joined Hebrew as the spoken language in Judea.[35] By the third century BCE, Jews of the diaspora were speaking Greek.[36]

For centuries, Jews worldwide have spoken the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, HP Pavilion dv7-4060eb Batteryoften developing distinctive dialectal forms or branches that became independent languages. Yiddish is the Judæo-German language developed by Ashkenazi Jews who migrated to Central Europe. Ladino is the Judæo-Spanish language developed by Sephardic Jews who migrated to the Iberian peninsula. Due to many factors, HP Pavilion dv7-4060em Battery including the impact of the Holocaust on European Jewry, the Jewish exodus from Arab lands, and widespread emigration from other Jewish communities around the world, ancient and distinct Jewish languages of several communities, including Gruzinic, Judæo-Arabic, Judæo-Berber, Krymchak, Judæo-Malayalam and many others, have largely fallen out of use.[37] HP Pavilion dv7-4060si Battery

For over sixteen centuries Hebrew was used almost exclusively as a liturgical language, and as the language in which most books had been written on Judaism, with a few speaking only Hebrew on the Sabbath.[38] Hebrew was revived as a spoken language by Eliezer ben Yehuda,HP Pavilion dv7-4060us Battery who arrived in Palestine in 1881. It had not been used as a mother tongue since Tannaic times.[35] Modern Hebrew is now one of the two official languages of the State of Israel along with Arabic.[39]

The three most commonly spoken languages among Jews today are Hebrew, English and Russian. Some Romance languages, HP Pavilion dv7-4061nr Battery such as French and Spanish, are also widely used.[37] Yiddish has been spoken by more Jews in history than any other language,[40] but it is far less used today, after the Holocaust and the adoption of Hebrew by the Zionist movement, then Israel.

Genetic studiesHP Pavilion dv7-4063ca Battery

Main article: Genetic studies on Jews

See also: Y-chromosomal Aaron, Genealogical DNA test, and Matrilineality

Genetic studies indicate various lineages found in modern Jewish populations; however, most of these populations share a lineage in common, traceable to an ancient population that underwent geographic branching and subsequent independent evolutions. HP Pavilion dv7-4065dx Battery [41] While DNA tests have demonstrated inter-marriage in all of the various Jewish ethnic divisions over the last 3,000 years, it was substantially less than in other populations.[42] The findings lend support to traditional Jewish accounts accrediting their founding to exiled Israelite populations, and counters theories that many or most of the world’s Jewish populations were founded entirely by local populations that adopted the Jewish religion, HP Pavilion dv7-4065ei Battery devoid of any actual Israelite genetic input.[42]

DNA analysis further determined that modern Jews of the priesthood tribe—”Kohanim”—share an ancestor dating back about 3,000 years.[43] This result is consistent for all Jewish populations around the world. HP Pavilion dv7-4065ez Battery [43] The researchers estimated that the most recent common ancestor of modern Kohanim lived between 1000 BCE (roughly the time of the Biblical Exodus) and 586 BCE, when the Babylonians destroyed the First Temple.[44] They found similar results analyzing DNA from Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews. HP Pavilion dv7-4065sf Battery [44] The scientists estimated the date of the original priest based on genetic mutations, which indicated that the priest lived roughly 106 generations ago, between 2,650 and 3,180 years ago depending whether one counts a generation as 25 or 30 years.[44] These Jews belong to the haplotypes J1e and J2a. However, HP Pavilion dv7-4065si Battery more recent research has shown that many ethnic groups in the Middle East and Mediterranean area also share this genetic profile.[45]

Although individual and groups of converts to Judaism have historically been absorbed into contemporary Jewish populations, it is unlikely that they formed a large percentage of the ancestors of modern Jewish groups, HP Pavilion dv7-4066sf Battery and much less that they represented their genesis as Jewish communities.[41][46]

Biologist Robert Pollack stated in 2003 that one cannot determine the biological “Jewishness” of an individual because “there are no DNA sequences common to all Jews and absent from all non-Jews”.HP Pavilion dv7-4067sf Battery [47] A 2009 study was able to genetically identify individuals with full or partial Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry.[48]

Male lineages: Y chromosomal DNA

A study published by the National Academy of Sciences found that “the paternal gene pools of Jewish communities from Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East descended from a common Middle Eastern ancestral population”HP Pavilion dv7-4069wm Battery, and suggested that “most Jewish communities have remained relatively isolated from neighboring non-Jewish communities during and after the Diaspora”.[41] Researchers expressed surprise at the remarkable genetic uniformity they found among modern Jews, no matter where the diaspora has become dispersed around the world.[41] HP Pavilion dv7-4070eb Battery

Other Y-chromosome findings show that the world’s Jewish communities are closely related to Kurds, Syrians and Palestinians.[43][49] Skorecki and colleague wrote that “the extremely close affinity of Jewish and non-Jewish Middle Eastern populations observed … supports the hypothesis of a common Middle Eastern origin”HP Pavilion dv7-4070eo Battery.[43] According to another study of the same year, more than 70% of Jewish men and half of the Arab men (inhabitants of Israel and the territories only) whose DNA was studied inherited their Y-chromosomes from the same paternal ancestors who lived in the region within the last few thousand years. The results are consistent with the Biblical account of Jews and Arabs having a common ancestor. HP Pavilion dv7-4070er BatteryAbout two-thirds of Israeli Arabs and Arabs in the territories and a similar proportion of Israeli Jews are the descendants of at least three common ancestors who lived in the Middle East in the Neolithic period. However, the Palestinian Arab clade includes two Arab modal haplotypes which are found at only very low frequency among Jews, HP Pavilion dv7-4070ez Batteryreflecting divergence and/or large scale admixture from non-local populations to the Palestinians.[50]

A study of haplotypes of the Y-chromosome, published in 2000, addressed the paternal origins of Ashkenazi Jews. Hammer et al.[41] found that the Y chromosome of some Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews contained mutations that are also common among Middle Eastern peoples, HP Pavilion dv7-4070sf Battery but uncommon in the general European population. This suggested that the male ancestors of the Ashkenazi Jews could be traced mostly to the Middle East. The proportion of male genetic admixture in Ashkenazi Jews amounts to less than 0.5% per generation over an estimated 80 generations, with “relatively minor contribution of European Y chromosomes to the Ashkenazim, HP Pavilion dv7-4070us Battery” and a total admixture estimate “very similar to Motulsky’s average estimate of 12.5%.” This supported the finding that “Diaspora Jews from Europe, Northwest Africa, and the Near East resemble each other more closely than they resemble their non-Jewish neighbors.” However, when all haplotypes were included in the analysis, m (the admixture percentage) increased to 23% ± 7%. In addition, HP Pavilion dv7-4071nr Batteryof the Jewish populations in this cluster, the Ashkenazim were closest to South European populations, specifically the Greeks.[41]

In Jewish populations, Haplogroup J1 (defined by the 267 marker) constitutes 30% of the Yemenite Jews[51] 20.0% of the Ashkenazim results and 12% of the Sephardic results.[51][52][53][54] However, HP Pavilion dv7-4073ca Battery J1 is most frequent in Yemen (76%),[55][56] Saudi (64%),[57] Qatar (58%).[56] J1 is generally frequent amongst Negev Bedouins (62%[58]). It is also very common among other Arabs such as those of the Levant, i.e. Palestinian (38.4%),[52] Syria (30%), Lebanon (25%).[59][60] In Europe, higher frequencies have been reported in the central Adriatic regions of Italy: Gargano (17.2%),HP Pavilion dv7-4073nr Battery [61] Pescara (15%),[61] in the Mediterranean Paola (11.1%)[61] and in South Sicilian Ragusa (10.7%).[62] Fairly high frequencies have also been reported in other nearby Mediterranean areas: Crete (8.3%),[63] Malta (7.8%), Cyprus (6.2%),[64] Greece (5.3%).[63]

Haplogroup J2 which is found in the Sephardic Jews (29%)[65] and Ashkenazi Jews (23%),[65] or 19%.HP Pavilion dv7-4074ca Battery [66] is found mainly in the Fertile Crescent, the Caucasus,[67] Anatolia, the Balkans, Italy, the Mediterranean littoral, the Iranian plateau, Central Asia, and South Asia.[65] More specifically, it is found in Iraq,[68] Syria, Lebanon,[69] Turkey, Israel, Palestine, Greece, Italy and the eastern coasts of the Iberian PeninsulaHP Pavilion dv7-4075sb Battery,[61] and more frequently in Iraqis 29.7%,[70] Lebanese 25%,[71] Palestinians 16.8%,[65] Syrians 22.5%,[72] Kurds 28.4%, Saudi Arabia 15.92%,[73] Jordan 14.3%, Oman 10–15%,[74] UAE 10.4%, Yemen 9.7%,[56] in Israel,[65] in Palestine,[65] and in Turkey.[75]

Female lineages: Mitochondrial DNAHP Pavilion dv7-4075sf Battery

Before 2006, geneticists largely attributed the genesis of most of the world’s Jewish populations to founding acts by males who migrated from the Middle East and “by the women from each local population whom they took as wives and converted to Judaism”, though no genetic relation was found between Jewish and non Jewish female lineages. HP Pavilion dv7-4077cl BatteryHowever, more recent findings of studies of maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA, at least in Ashkenazi Jews, has led to a review of this archetype.[76] This research has suggested that, in addition to Israelite male, significant female founder ancestry might also derive from the Middle East-with 40% of Ashkenazim descended from four women lived about 1000–1500 years ago in the Middle East. HP Pavilion dv7-4078ca Battery [76] In addition, Behar (2006) suggested that the rest of Ashkenazi mtDNA is originated from about 150 women, most of those were probably of Middle Eastern origin.[77] Approximately 32% of people with Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry belong to the mtDNA haplogroup K. This high percentage points to a genetic bottleneck occurring some 100 generations ago.[78] HP Pavilion dv7-4080er Battery

Research in 2008 found significant founder effects in many non-Asheknazi Jewish populations. In Belmonte, Azerbaijani, Georgian, Bene Israel and Libyan Jewish communities “a single mother was sufficient to explain at least 40% of their present-day mtDNA variation”. In addition, HP Pavilion dv7-4080sb Battery“the Cochin and Tunisian Jewish communities show an attenuated pattern with two founding mothers explaining >30% of the variation.” In contrast, Bulgarian, Turkish, Moroccan and Ethiopian Jews were heterogeneous with no evidence “for a narrow founder effect or depletion of mtDNA variation attributable to drift”. HP Pavilion dv7-4080ss BatteryThe authors noted that “the first three of these communities were established following the Spanish expulsion and/or received large influxes of individuals from the Iberian Peninsula and high variation presently observed, probably reflects high overall mtDNA diversity among Jews of Spanish descent. LikewiseHP Pavilion dv7-4080us Battery, the mtDNA pool of Ethiopian Jews reflects the rich maternal lineage variety of East Africa.” Jewish communities from Iraq, Iran, and Yemen showed a “third and intermediate pattern… consistent with a founding event, but not a narrow one”.[79]

In this and other studies Yemenite Jews differ from other Mizrahim, as well as from Ashkenazim, HP Pavilion dv7-4083cl Batteryin the proportion of sub-Saharan African gene types which have entered their gene pools.[80] African-specific Hg L(xM,N) lineages were found only in Yemenite and Ethiopian Jewish populations.[79] Among Yemenites, the average stands at 35% lineages within the past 3,000 years.[80]

Genome-wide association and linkage studiesHP Pavilion dv7-4085eb Battery

In genetic epidemiology, a genome-wide association study (GWA study, or GWAS) is an examination of all or most of the genes (the genome) of different individuals of a particular species to see how much the genes vary from individual to individual. These techniques were originally designed for epidemiological uses, to identify genetic associations with observable traits.[81] HP Pavilion dv7-4085es Battery

A 2006 study by Seldin, et al. used over five thousand autosomal SNPs to demonstrate European genetic substructure amongst the Ashkenazi. The results showed “a consistent and reproducible distinction between ‘northern’ and ’southern’ European population groups”. Most northern, central, and eastern Europeans (Finns, HP Pavilion dv7-4085sf BatterySwedes, English, Irish, Germans, and Ukrainians) showed >90% in the ‘northern’ population group, while most individual participants with southern European ancestry (Italians, Greeks, Portuguese, Spaniards) showed >85% in the ’southern’ group. Both Ashkenazi Jews as well as Sephardic Jews showed >85% membership in the “southern” group. Referring to the Jews clustering with southern Europeans, the authors state the results were “consistent with a later Mediterranean origin of these ethnic groups”.HP Pavilion dv7-4087cl Battery [82]

A 2007 study by Bauchet, et al. found that Ashkenazi Jews were most closely clustered with Arabic North African populations when compared to Global population, and in the European structure analysis, they share similarities only with Greeks and Southern Italians, reflecting their east Mediterranean origins. HP Pavilion dv7-4090ca Battery [83][84]

A 2010 study on Jewish ancestry by Atzmon-Ostrer et al. stated “Two major groups were identified by principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by descent (IBD) analysis: Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews. HP Pavilion dv7-4090eb BatteryThe IBD segment sharing and the proximity of European Jews to each other and to southern European populations suggested similar origins for European Jewry and refuted large-scale genetic contributions of Central and Eastern European and Slavic populations to the formation of Ashkenazi Jewry.”, HP Pavilion dv7-4090es Battery as both groups—the Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews shared common ancestors in the Middle East about 2500 years ago. The study examines genetic markers spread across the entire genome and shows that the Jewish groups (Ashkenazi and non Ashkenazi) share large swaths of DNA, HP Pavilion dv7-4090sf Batteryindicating close relationships and that each of the Jewish groups in the study (Iranian, Iraqi, Syrian, Italian, Turkish, Greek and Ashkenazi) has its own genetic signature but is more closely related to the other Jewish groups than to their non Jewish fellow countrymen.[85] Atzmon’s team found that the SNP markers in genetic segments of 3 million DNA letters or longer were 10 times more likely to be identical among Jews than non-Jews. HP Pavilion dv7-4091sf BatteryResults of the analysis also tally with biblical accounts of the fate of the Jews. Using their DNA analysis, the authors traced the ancestors of all Jews to Persia and Babylon, areas that now form part of Iran and Iraq.[86] The study also found that with respect to non-Jewish European groups, HP Pavilion dv7-4095eb Battery the population most closely related to Ashkenazi Jews are modern-day Italians. The study speculated that the genetic-similarity between Ashkenazi Jews and Italians may be due to inter-marriage and conversions in the time of the Roman Empire. It was also found that any two Ashkenazi Jewish participants in the study shared about as much DNA as fourth or fifth cousins[87][88] HP Pavilion dv7-4100 Battery

A 2010 study by Bray et al, using SNP microarray techniques and linkage analysis, estimated that 35 to 55 percent of the modern Ashkenazi genome is specifically traceable to Europe, and that European “admixture is considerably higher than previous estimates by studies that used the Y chromosome”. HP Pavilion dv7-4105TX BatteryThe study assumed Druze and Palestinian Arabs populations to represent the reference to world Jewry ancestor genome. With this reference point, the linkage disequilibrium in the Ashkenazi Jewish population was interpreted as “matches signs of interbreeding or ‘admixture’ between Middle Eastern and European populations”. HP Pavilion dv7-4106TX BatteryIn their press release, Bray stated: “We were surprised to find evidence that Ashkenazi Jews have higher heterozygosity than Europeans, contradicting the widely-held presumption that they have been a largely isolated group”. “Thus, the AJ population shows evidence of past founding events; however, admixture and selection have also strongly influenced its current genetic makeup. HP Pavilion dv7-4130sa Battery” The authors note that their results will require further investigation.[89][90]

Demographics

Main article: Jewish population

Population centresHP Pavilion dv7-4131sa Battery

There are an estimated 13–14 million Jews worldwide.[1] The table lists countries with significant populations.[1] Please note that these populations represent low-end estimates of the worldwide Jewish population, accounting for around 0.2% of the world’s populationHP Pavilion dv7-4140ea Battery.

State of Israel

Main article: Israeli Jews

Israel, the Jewish nation-state, is the only country in which Jews make up a majority of the citizens. HP Pavilion dv7-4142eo Battery [92] Israel was established as an independent democratic and Jewish state on May 14, 1948.[93] Of the 120 members in its parliament, the Knesset,[94] currently, 12 members of the Knesset are Arab citizens of Israel, most representing Arab political parties and one of Israel’s Supreme Court judges is a Palestinian Arab.[95] HP Pavilion dv7-4150ea Battery

Between 1948 and 1958, the Jewish population rose from 800,000 to two million.[96] Currently, Jews account for 75.8% of the Israeli population, or 5.4 million people.[97] The early years of the state of Israel were marked by the mass immigration of Holocaust survivors and Jews fleeing Arab landsHP Pavilion dv7-4170eo Battery.[98] Israel also has a large population of Ethiopian Jews, many of whom were airlifted to Israel in the late 1980s and early 1990s.[99] Between 1974 and 1979 nearly 227,258 immigrants arrived in Israel, about half being from the Soviet Union.[100] This period also saw an increase in immigration to Israel from Western Europe, HP Pavilion dv7-4180ea BatteryLatin America, and the United States[101]

A trickle of immigrants from other communities has also arrived, including Indian Jews and others, as well as some descendants of Ashkenazi Holocaust survivors who had settled in countries such as the United States, HP Pavilion dv7-6000 Battery Argentina, Australia, Chile, and South Africa. Some Jews have emigrated from Israel elsewhere, due to economic problems or disillusionment with political conditions and the continuing Arab-Israeli conflict. Jewish Israeli emigrants are known as yordim.[102]

Diaspora (outside Israel) HP Pavilion dv7-6000sg Battery

Main article: Jewish diaspora

The waves of immigration to the United States and elsewhere at the turn of the 19th century, the founding of Zionism and later events, including pogroms in Russia, the massacre of European Jewry during the Holocaust, HP Pavilion dv7-6001sg Battery and the founding of the state of Israel, with the subsequent Jewish exodus from Arab lands, all resulted in substantial shifts in the population centers of world Jewry by the end of the 20th century.[103]

Public Hanukkah menorah in Nicosia, CyprusHP Pavilion dv7-6001xx Battery

In this Rosh Hashana greeting card from the early 1900s, Russian Jews, packs in hand, gaze at the American relatives beckoning them to the United States. Over two million Jews fled the pogroms of the Russian Empire to the safety of the US between 1881 and 1924.[104] HP Pavilion dv7-6002sa Battery

Currently, the largest Jewish community in the world is located in the United States, with 5.3 million to 6.4 million Jews by various estimates. Elsewhere in the Americas, there are also large Jewish populations in Canada, Argentina, and Brazil, and smaller populations in Mexico, Uruguay, HP Pavilion dv7-6004ea Battery Venezuela, Chile, and several other countries (see History of the Jews in Latin America).[97]

Western Europe’s largest Jewish community can be found in France, home to 490,000 Jews, the majority of whom are immigrants or refugees from North African Arab countries such as Algeria, HP Pavilion dv7-6004tx BatteryMorocco, and Tunisia (or their descendants).[105] There are 295,000 Jews in the United Kingdom. In Eastern Europe, there are anywhere from 350,000 to one million Jews living in the former Soviet Union, but exact figures are difficult to establish. The fastest-growing Jewish community in the world, outside Israel, is the one in Germany, HP Pavilion dv7-6005sg Batteryespecially in Berlin, its capital. Tens of thousands of Jews from the former Eastern Bloc have settled in Germany since the fall of the Berlin Wall.[106]

The Arab countries of North Africa and the Middle East were home to around 900,000 Jews in 1945. HP Pavilion dv7-6005tx Battery Fueled by anti-Zionism[107] after the founding of Israel, systematic persecution caused almost all of these Jews to flee to Israel, North America, and Europe in the 1950s (see Jewish exodus from Arab lands). Today, around 8,000 Jews remain in all Arab nations combined.[108]

Iran is home to around 10,800 Jews, HP Pavilion dv7-6006sg Battery down from a population of 100,000 Jews before the 1979 revolution. After the revolution some of the Iranian Jews emigrated to Israel or Europe but most of them emigrated (with their non-Jewish Iranian compatriots) to the United States (especially Los Angeles, where the principal community is called “Tehrangeles”).[108][109] HP Pavilion dv7-6007sg Battery

Outside Europe, the Americas, the Middle East, and the rest of Asia, there are significant Jewish populations in Australia and South Africa.[108]

Demographic changes

Main article: Historical Jewish population comparisons

AssimilationHP Pavilion dv7-6008eg Battery

Main article: Jewish assimilation

Since at least the time of the Ancient Greeks, a proportion of Jews have assimilated into the wider non-Jewish society around them, by either choice or force, ceasing to practice Judaism and losing their Jewish identityHP Pavilion dv7-6008sg Battery.[110] Assimilation took place in all areas, and during all time periods,[110] with some Jewish communities, for example the Kaifeng Jews of China, disappearing entirely.[111] The advent of the Jewish Enlightenment of the 18th century (see Haskalah) and the subsequent emancipation of the Jewish populations of Europe and America in the 19th century, HP Pavilion dv7-6011sg Batteryaccelerated the situation, encouraging Jews to increasingly participate in, and become part of, secular society. The result has been a growing trend of assimilation, as Jews marry non-Jewish spouses and stop participating in the Jewish community.[112]

Rates of interreligious marriage vary widely: HP Pavilion dv7-6011tx BatteryIn the United States, they are just under 50%,[113] in the United Kingdom, around 53%, in France, around 30%,[114] and in Australia and Mexico, as low as 10%.[115][116] In the United States, only about a third of children from intermarriages affiliate themselves with Jewish religious practice. HP Pavilion dv7-6012eg Battery [117] The result is that most countries in the Diaspora have steady or slightly declining religiously Jewish populations as Jews continue to assimilate into the countries in which they live.

War and persecution

Main article: Persecution of JewsHP Pavilion dv7-6012sg Battery

Further information: Antisemitism, Islam and antisemitism, History of antisemitism, and New antisemitism

Jews (identifiable by the distinctive hats that they were required to wear) being killed by Christian knights. French Bible illustration from 1255. HP Pavilion dv7-6012tx Battery

World War I poster shows a soldier cutting the bonds from a Jewish man, who says, “You have cut my bonds and set me free – now let me help you set others free!”

The Jewish people and Judaism have experienced various persecutions throughout Jewish history. During late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages the Roman Empire (in its later phases known as the Byzantine Empire) repeatedly repressed the Jewish population, HP Pavilion dv7-6013eg Battery first by ejecting them from their homelands during the pagan Roman era and later by officially establishing them as second-class citizens during the Christian Roman era.[118][119]

According to James Carroll, “Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. HP Pavilion dv7-6013tx Battery By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million.”[120]

Later in medieval Western Europe, further persecutions of Jews in the name of Christianity occurred, HP Pavilion dv7-6014tx Battery notably during the Crusades—when Jews all over Germany were massacred—and a series of expulsions from England, Germany, France, and, in the largest expulsion of all, Spain and Portugal after the Reconquista (the Catholic Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula), where both unbaptized Sephardic Jews and the ruling Muslim Moors were expelled.[121][122] HP Pavilion dv7-6015eg Battery

In the Papal States, which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called ghettos.[123] In the 19th and (before the end of World War II) 20th centuries, the Roman Catholic Church adhered to a distinction between “good antisemitism” and “bad antisemitism”. HP Pavilion dv7-6015sg BatteryThe “bad” kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The “good” kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, HP Pavilion dv7-6025eg Batteryto care only about accumulation of wealth, etc.[124]

Islam and Judaism have a complex relationship. Traditionally Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands, known as dhimmis, were allowed to practice their religions and to administer their internal affairs, but subject to certain conditions. HP Pavilion dv7-6055ef Battery [125] They had to pay the jizya (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to the Islamic state.[125] Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal disabilities such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims.[126] Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic. HP Pavilion dv7-6055sf BatteryThe one described by Bernard Lewis as “most degrading”[127] was the requirement of distinctive clothing, not found in the Qur’an or hadith but invented in early medieval Baghdad; its enforcement was highly erratic.[127] On the other hand, Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religionHP Pavilion dv7-6065ef Battery, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession.[128]

Notable exceptions include the massacre of Jews and/or forcible conversion of some Jews by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in Al-Andalus in the 12th century,[129] as well as in Islamic Persia, HP Pavilion dv7-6065sf Battery [130] and the forced confinement of Moroccan Jews to walled quarters known as mellahs beginning from the 15th century and especially in the early 19th century.[131] In modern times, it has become commonplace for standard antisemitic themes to be conflated with anti-Zionist publications and pronouncements of Islamic movements such as Hezbollah and Hamas, HP Pavilion dv7-6070sf Battery in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Turkish Refah Partisi.”[132]

Jews in Minsk, 1941. Before World War II some 40% of the population was Jewish. By the time the Red Army retook the city on 3 July 1944, there were only a few Jewish survivors.

Throughout history, HP Pavilion dv7-6081eg Battery many rulers, empires and nations have oppressed their Jewish populations or sought to eliminate them entirely. Methods employed ranged from expulsion to outright genocide; within nations, often the threat of these extreme methods was sufficient to silence dissent. The history of antisemitism includes the First Crusade which resulted in the massacre of Jews; HP Pavilion dv7-6090sf Battery [121] the Spanish Inquisition (led by Torquemada) and the Portuguese Inquisition, with their persecution and autos-da-fé against the New Christians and Marrano Jews;[133] the Bohdan Chmielnicki Cossack massacres in Ukraine;[134] the Pogroms backed by the Russian Tsars;[135] as well as expulsions from Spain, Portugal, England, France, Germany, HP Pavilion dv7-6097ef Batteryand other countries in which the Jews had settled.[122] According to a recent study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics 19.8% of the modern Iberian population has Sephardic Jewish ancestry,[136] indicating that the number of conversos may have been much higher than originally thought.[137][138] HP G62-100 Battery

The persecution reached a peak in Nazi Germany’s Final Solution, which led to the Holocaust and the slaughter of approximately 6 million Jews.[139] The Holocaust — the state-led systematic persecution and genocide of European Jews (and certain communities of North African Jews in European controlled North Africa) and other minority groups of Europe during World War II by Germany and its collaborators remains the most notable modern day persecution of Jews. HP G62-100EB Battery [140] The persecution and genocide were accomplished in stages. Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II.[141] Concentration camps were established in which inmates were used as slave labour until they died of exhaustion or disease. HP G62-100EE Battery [142] Where the Third Reich conquered new territory in eastern Europe, specialized units called Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings.[143] Jews and Roma were crammed into ghettos before being transported hundreds of miles by freight train to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, HP G62-100EJ Batterythe majority of them were killed in gas chambers.[144] Virtually every arm of Germany’s bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called “a genocidal nation.”[145]

MigrationsHP G62-100SL Battery

Etching of the expulsion of the Jews from Frankfurt on August 23, 1614. The text says: “1380 persons old and young were counted at the exit of the gate”

Jews fleeing pogroms, 1882

Throughout Jewish history, HP G62-101TU Battery Jews have repeatedly been directly or indirectly expelled from both their original homeland and the areas in which they have resided. This experience as refugees has shaped Jewish identity and religious practice in many ways, and is thus a major element of Jewish history. HP G62-101XX Battery [146] The incomplete list of major and other noteworthy migrations that follows includes numerous instances of expulsion or departure under duress:

The patriarch Abraham was a migrant to the land of Canaan from Ur of the Chaldees[147] after an attempt on his life by King Nimrod.[148] HP G62-103XX Battery

The Children of Israel experienced the Exodus (meaning “departure” or “exit” in Greek) from ancient Egypt, as recorded in the Book of Exodus.[149]

The Kingdom of Israel was sent into permanent exile by Assyria, initially to the Upper Mesopotamian provinces of the Assyrian Empire, HP G62-104SA Battery [150] from whence they scattered all over the world (or at least to unknown locations).[151]

The Kingdom of Judah was exiled by Babylonia,[152] then returned to Judea by Cyrus the Great of the Persian Achaemenid Empire,[153] and then many were exiled again by the Roman Empire.[154] HP G62-105SA Battery

The 2,000 year dispersion of the Jewish diaspora beginning under the Roman Empire, as Jews were spread throughout the Roman world and, driven from land to land, and settled wherever they could live freely enough to practice their religion. HP G62-106SA Battery Over the course of the diaspora the center of Jewish life moved from Babylonia[155] to the Iberian Peninsula[156] to Poland[157] to the United States[158] and, as a result of Zionism, back to Israel.[159] HP G62-107SA Battery

Many expulsions during the Middle Ages and Enlightenment in Europe, including: 1290, 16,000 Jews were expelled from England, see the (Statute of Jewry); in 1396, 100,000 from France; in 1421 thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of these Jews settled in Eastern Europe, especially Poland.[160] HP G62-110ED Battery

Following the Spanish Inquisition in 1492, the Spanish population of around 200,000 Sephardic Jews were expelled by the Spanish crown and Catholic church, followed by expulsions in 1493 in Sicily (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. HP G62-110EE BatteryThe expelled Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire, the Netherlands, and North Africa, others migrating to Southern Europe and the Middle East.[161]

During the 19th century, France’s policies of equal citizenship regardless of religion led to the immigration of Jews (especially from Eastern and Central Europe). HP G62-110EO Battery [162]

The arrival of millions of Jews in the New World, including immigration of over two million Eastern European Jews to the United States from 1880–1925, see History of the Jews in the United States and History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union.[163]

The Pogroms in Eastern Europe, HP G62-110EY Battery [135] the rise of modern antisemitism,[164] the Holocaust,[165] and the rise of Arab nationalism[166] all served to fuel the movements and migrations of huge segments of Jewry from land to land and continent to continent, until they arrived back in large numbers at their original historical homeland in Israel.[159] HP G62-110SA Battery

The Islamic Revolution of Iran caused many Iranian Jews to flee Iran. Most found refuge in the US (particularly Los Angeles, CA) and Israel. Smaller communities of Persian Jews exist in Canada and Western Europe.[167]

When the Soviet Union collapsed, HP G62-110SO Battery many of the Jews in the affected territory (who had been refuseniks) were suddenly allowed to leave. This produced a wave of migration to Israel in the early 1990s.[102]

Growth

Hasidic Jews in BrooklynHP G62-110SS Battery

Israel is the only country with a consistently growing Jewish population due to natural population increase, though the Jewish populations of other countries in Europe and North America have recently increased due to immigration. In the Diaspora, HP G62-110SW Batteryin almost every country the Jewish population in general is either declining or steady, but Orthodox and Haredi Jewish communities, whose members often shun birth control for religious reasons, have experienced rapid population growth.[168]

Orthodox and Conservative Judaism discourage proselytism to non-Jews, HP G62-111EE Battery but many Jewish groups have tried to reach out to the assimilated Jewish communities of the Diaspora in order for them to reconnect to their Jewish roots. Additionally, while in principle Reform Judaism favors seeking new members for the faith, this position has not translated into active proselytism, instead taking the form of an effort to reach out to non-Jewish spouses of intermarried couplesHP G62-112EE Battery.[169]

There is also a trend of Orthodox movements pursuing secular Jews in order to give them a stronger Jewish identity so there is less chance of intermarriage. As a result of the efforts by these and other Jewish groups over the past 25 years, there has been a trend of secular Jews becoming more religiously observant, HP G62-112SO Battery known as the Baal Teshuva movement, though the demographic implications of the trend are unknown.[170] Additionally, there is also a growing movement of Jews by Choice by gentiles who make the decision to head in the direction of becoming Jews.[171]

LeadershipHP G62-113SO Battery

Main article: Jewish leadership

There is no single governing body for the Jewish community, nor a single authority with responsibility for religious doctrine.[172] Instead, a variety of secular and religious institutions at the localHP G62-115SE Battery, national, and international levels lead various parts of the Jewish community on a variety of issues.[173]

Notable individuals

Main article: Lists of Jews

Jews have made contributions in a broad range of human endeavors, HP G62-115SO Batteryincluding the sciences, arts, politics, and business.[174][175] Although Jews comprise only 0.2% of the world’s population, over 20%[175][176] of Nobel Prize laureates have been Jewish, with multiple winners in each field. Jews and Judaism in Europe

Judaism in Europe has a long history, beginning with the conquest of the Eastern Mediterranean by Pompey in 63 BCE, HP G62-117SO Batterythus beginning the History of the Jews in the Roman Empire, though likely Alexandrian Jews had migrated to Rome slightly before Pompey’s conquest of the East.

The pre-World War II population of European Jews is estimated at close to 9 million. HP G62-118EO Battery [citation needed] It is believed that around 6,000,000 European Jews died in the Holocaust of 1940-1945. Further population drain is due to emigration, and the current Jewish population of Europe is estimated at ca. 2 million (0.3%), composed of

Ashkenazi Jews (about 1.4 million, mainly in France, Germany, Russia, Ukraine, and the United Kingdom) HP G62-120EC Battery

Sephardi Jews (about 0.3 million, mainly in France, Spain and Portugal)

Mizrahi Jews (about 0.3 million, mainly in France)

Italian Jews (some 50,000, mostly Italian)

Romaniotes (some 6,000, mostly Greek) HP G62-120EE Battery

History

Jews of Germany, 13th century

[edit]Early presence

Hellenistic Judaism, HP G62-120EG Batteryoriginating from Alexandria, was present throughout the Roman Empire even before the Roman-Jewish Wars. As early as the middle of the 2nd century BC, the Jewish author of the third book of the Oracula Sibyllina, addressing the “chosen people,” says: “Every land is full of thee and every sea.” The most diverse witnesses, such as Strabo, HP G62-120EH BatteryPhilo, Seneca, Cicero, and Josephus, all mention Jewish populations in the cities of the Mediterranean Basin. Most Jewish population centers of this period were however still in the East (Iudaea and Syria) and in Egypt (Alexandria was by far the most important of the Jewish communities, the Jews in Philo’s time were inhabiting two of the five quarters of the city). HP G62-120EK BatteryNevertheless, at the commencement of the reign of Caesar Augustus (27BC) there were over 7,000 Jews in Rome: this is the number that escorted the envoys who came to demand the deposition of Archelaus.

Roman Empire period presence of Jews in Croatia date to the 2nd century, in Pannonia to the 3rd to 4th century. HP G62-120EL BatteryA finger ring with a Menorah depiction found in Augusta Raurica (Kaiseraugst, Switzerland) in 2001 attests to Jewish presence in Germania Superior.[1] Evidence in towns north of the Loire or in southern Gaul date to the 5th century and 6th centuries.[2]

[edit]Middle AgesHP G62-120EP Battery

Further information: Christianity and antisemitism

Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600.

Early medieval period was a time of flourishing Jewish culture. Jewish and Christian life evolved in ‘diametrically opposite directions’ during the final centuries of Roman empire. HP G62-120EQ BatteryJewish life became autonomous, decentralized, community-centered. Christian life became a rigid hierarchical system under the supreme authority of the Pope and the Roman Emperor.[3]

Jewish life can be characterized as democratic. Rabbis in the Talmud interpreted Deut. 29:9, “your heads, HP G62-120ER Batteryyour tribes, your elders, and your officers, even all the men of Israel” and “Although I have appointed for you heads, elders, and officers, you are all equal before me” (Tanhuma ) to stress political shared power. Shared power entailed responsibilities: “you are all responsible for one another. If there be only one righteous man among you, HP G62-120ES Batteryyou will all profit from his merits, and not you alone, but the entire world…But if one of you sins, the whole generation will suffer.”[4]

Between 800 and 1100 there were 1.5 million Jews in Christian Europe. They were fortunate in not being part of the feudal system as serfs or knights, HP G62-120ET Batterythus were spared the oppression and constant warfare that made life miserable for most Christians.

In relations with the Christian society, they were protected by kings, princes and even bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: financial, administrative and as doctors. HP G62-120EY BatteryChristian scholars interested in the Bible would consult with Talmudic rabbis. All this changed with the reforms and strengthening of the Roman Catholic Church and the rise of envious and competitive middle-class, town dwelling Christians. By 1300 the friars and local priests were using the Passion Plays at Easter time, HP G62-120SE Batterywhich depicted Jews in contemporary dress killing Christ, to teach the general populace to hate and murder Jews. It was at this point that persecution and exile became endemic. Finally around 1500, Jews found security and a renewal of prosperity in Poland.[5]

Persecution of Jews in Europe begins in the High Middle Ages in the context of the Crusades. HP G62-120SL Battery In the First Crusade (1096) flourishing communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed; see German Crusade, 1096. In the Second Crusade (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. The Jews were also subjected to attacks by the Shepherds’ Crusades of 1251 and 1320. The Crusades were followed by expulsions, HP G62-120SS Battery including in, 1290, the banishing of all English Jews; in 1396, 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and, in 1421 thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.[6]

In the Late Middle Ages, as the Black Death epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, HP G62-120SW Batteryannihilating more than a half[citation needed] of the population. It is an oft-told myth, however, that due to their better nutrition and cleanliness, Jews were not infected in similar numbers; Jews were indeed infected in similar numbers to their non-Jewish neighbors [7] Yet they were still targeted as scapegoatsHP G62-121EE Battery. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence. Although the Pope Clement VI tried to protect them by the July 6, 1348 papal bull and another 1348 bull, several months later, 900 Jews were burnt alive in Strasbourg, where the plague hadn’t yet affected the city. HP G62-125EK Battery[8]

Jewish survival in the face of external pressures from Roman Catholic empire and Persian Zoroastrian empire is ‘enigmatic’ to historians.[9]

Baron explains it by eight factors:

Messianic faith. Belief in an ultimately positive outcome and restoration of IsraelHP G62-125EL Battery.

The doctrine of the Hereafter increasingly elaborated. Reconciled Jews with suffering in this world and helped them resist outside temptations to convert.

Suffering was given meaning through hope-inducing interpretation of their history and their destiny. HP G62-125EV Battery

The doctrine of martyrdom and inescapability of persecution transformed it into a source of communal solidarity.

Jewish daily life was very satisfying. Jews lived among Jews. In practice, in a lifetime, individuals encountered overt persecution only on a few dramatic occasions. HP G62-125SL BatteryJews mostly lived under discrimination that affected everyone, and to which they were habituated. Daily life was governed by a multiplicity of ritual requirements, so that each Jew was constantly aware of God throughout the day. “For the most part, he found this all-encompassing Jewish way of life so eminently satisfactory that he was prepared to sacrifice himself…for the preservation of its fundamentals.” HP G62-130 Battery [10] Those commandments for which Jews had sacrificed their lives, such as defying idolatry, not eating pork, observing circumcision, were the ones most strictly adhered to.[11]

The corporate development and segregationist policies of the late Roman empire and Persian empire, HP G62-130EG Battery helped keep Jewish community organization strong.

Talmud provided an extremely effective force to sustain Jewish ethics, law and culture, judicial and social welfare system, universal education, regulation of strong family life and religious life from birth to death. HP G62-130EK Battery

The concentration of Jewish masses within ‘the lower middle class’,[12] with the middle class virtues of sexual self-control. There was a moderate path between asceticism and licentiousness. Marriage was considered to be the foundation of ethnic, and ethical, life.

Outside hostility only helped cement Jewish unity and internal strength and commitment. HP G62-130ET Battery

[edit]Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain

Main article: Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain

See also: Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800 – 1400) HP G62-130EV Battery

The Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain refers to a period of history during the Muslim rule of Iberia in which Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural and economic life blossomed. This “Golden Age” is variously dated from the 8th to 12th centuries. HP G62-130SD Battery

Al-Andalus was a key center of Jewish life during the Middle Ages, producing important scholars and one of the most stable and wealthy Jewish communities. A number of famous Jewish philosophers and scholars flourished during this time, most notably Maimonides. HP G62-130SL Battery

[edit]Spanish Inquisition

Sultan Bayezid II sent Kemal Reis to save the Arabs and Sephardic Jews of Spain from the Spanish Inquisition in 1492, and granted them permission to settle in the Ottoman EmpireHP G62-134CA Battery

Main article: Spanish Inquisition

The Spanish Inquisition was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms and was under the direct control of the Spanish monarchy. HP G62-135EV BatteryIt was not definitively abolished until 1834, during the reign of Isabel II.

The Inquisition, as an ecclesiastical tribunal, had jurisdiction only over baptized Christians. However, since Jews (in 1492) and Muslim Moors (in 1502) had been banished from Spain, HP G62-140EL Battery jurisdiction of the Inquisition during a large part of its history extended in practice to all royal subjects. The Inquisition worked in large part to ensure the orthodoxy of recent converts known as conversos or marranos.

[edit]Poland as the center of the Jewish world

Main article: History of the Jews in PolandHP G62-140EQ Battery

For more details on this topic, see History of the Jews in pre-18th-century Poland.

The expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, as well as from Austria, Hungary and Germany, stimulated a widespread Jewish migration to the much more tolerant Poland. Indeed, with the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, HP G62-140ES Battery Poland became the recognized haven for exiles from Western Europe; and the resulting accession to the ranks of Polish Jewry made it the cultural and spiritual center of the Jewish people.

The most prosperous period for Polish Jews began following this new influx of Jews with the reign of Zygmunt I (1506–1548), HP G62-140ET Battery who protected the Jews in his realm. His son, Zygmunt II August (1548–1572), mainly followed in the tolerant policy of his father and also granted autonomy to the Jews in the matter of communal administration and laid the foundation for the power of the Qahal, HP G62-140SF Batteryor autonomous Jewish community. This period led to the creation of a proverb about Poland being a “heaven for the Jews”. According to some sources, about three-quarters of all Jews lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century. HP G62-140SS Battery [13][14][15] In the middle of the 16th century, Poland welcomed the Jewish newcomers from Italy and Turkey, mostly of Sephardi origin, however some of the immigrants from the Ottoman Empire are still claimed to be Mizrahim. Jewish religious life thrived in many Polish communities. In 1503, the Polish monarchy appointed Rabbi Jacob Polak, HP G62-140US Battery the official Rabbi of Poland, marking the emergence of the Chief Rabbinate. By 1551, Jews were given permission to choose their own Chief Rabbi. The Chief Rabbinate held power over law and finance, appointing judges and other officials. Some power was shared with local councils. The Polish government permitted the Rabbinate to grow in power, to use it for tax collection purposes. HP G62-143CL BatteryOnly 30% of the money raised by the Rabbinate served Jewish causes, the rest went to the Crown for protection. In this period Poland-Lithuania became the main center for Ashkenazi Jewry and its yeshivot achieved fame from the early 16th century.

Moses Isserles (1520–1572), HP G62-144DX Batteryan eminent Talmudist of the 16th century, established his yeshiva in Kraków. In addition to being a renowned Talmudic and legal scholar, Isserles was also learned in Kabbalah, and studied history, astronomy, and philosophy.

[edit]The development of Judaism in Poland and the CommonwealthHP G62-145NR Battery

A Jewish couple, Poland, c. 1765

For more details on this topic, see History of the Jews in pre-18th-century Poland.

The culture and intellectual output of the Jewish community in Poland had a profound impact on Judaism as a whole. HP G62-147NR BatterySome Jewish historians have recounted that the word Poland is pronounced as Polania or Polin in Hebrew, and as transliterated into Hebrew, these names for Poland were interpreted as “good omens” because Polania can be broken down into three Hebrew words: po (”here”), lan (”dwells”), ya (”God”), HP G62-149WM Batteryand Polin into two words of: po (”here”) lin (”[you should] dwell”). The “message” was that Poland was meant to be a good place for the Jews. During the time from the rule of Sigismund I the Old until the Nazi Holocaust, Poland would be at the center of Jewish religious life.

Late renaissance synagogue in Zamość (1610-1620). HP G62-150EE Battery

Yeshivot were established, under the direction of the rabbis, in the more prominent communities. Such schools were officially known as gymnasiums, and their rabbi principals as rectors. Important yeshivot existed in Kraków, Poznań, and other cities. HP G62-150EF BatteryJewish printing establishments came into existence in the first quarter of the 16th century. In 1530 a Hebrew Pentateuch (Torah) was printed in Kraków; and at the end of the century the Jewish printing houses of that city and Lublin issued a large number of Jewish books, mainly of a religious character. HP G62-150EQ BatteryThe growth of Talmudic scholarship in Poland was coincident with the greater prosperity of the Polish Jews; and because of their communal autonomy educational development was wholly one-sided and along Talmudic lines. Exceptions are recorded, however, where Jewish youth sought secular instruction in the European universities. HP G62-150ET BatteryThe learned rabbis became not merely expounders of the Law, but also spiritual advisers, teachers, judges, and legislators; and their authority compelled the communal leaders to make themselves familiar with the abstruse questions of Jewish law. Polish Jewry found its views of life shaped by the spirit of Talmudic and rabbinical literature, whose influence was felt in the home, in school, and in the synagogue.HP G62-150EV Battery

In the first half of the 16th century the seeds of Talmudic learning had been transplanted to Poland from Bohemia, particularly from the school of Jacob Pollak, the creator of Pilpul (”sharp reasoning”). Shalom Shachna (c. 1500–1558), a pupil of Pollak, is counted among the pioneers of Talmudic learning in Poland. HP G62-150SE BatteryHe lived and died in Lublin, where he was the head of the yeshivah which produced the rabbinical celebrities of the following century. Shachna’s son Israel became rabbi of Lublin on the death of his father, and Shachna’s pupil Moses Isserles (known as the ReMA) (1520–1572) achieved an international reputation among the Jews as the co-author of the Shulkhan ArukhHP G62-150SF Battery, (the “Code of Jewish Law”). His contemporary and correspondent Solomon Luria (1510–1573) of Lublin also enjoyed a wide reputation among his co-religionists; and the authority of both was recognized by the Jews throughout Europe. Heated religious disputations were common, and Jewish scholars participated in them. HP G62-150SL BatteryAt the same time, the Kabbalah had become entrenched under the protection of Rabbinism; and such scholars as Mordecai Jaffe and Yoel Sirkis devoted themselves to its study. This period of great Rabbinical scholarship was interrupted by the Chmielnicki Uprising and The Deluge.

Israel ben Eliezer, founder of Hasidism. HP G62-153CA Battery

[edit]The rise of Hasidism

Main article: Hasidic Judaism

The decade from the Cossacks’ uprising until after the Swedish war (1648–1658) left a deep and lasting impression not only on the social life of the Polish-Lithuanian Jews, HP G62-154CA Battery but on their spiritual life as well. The intellectual output of the Jews of Poland was reduced. The Talmudic learning which up to that period had been the common possession of the majority of the people became accessible to a limited number of students only. What religious study there was became overly formalized, some rabbis busied themselves with quibbles concerning religious laws; HP G62-165SL Batteryothers wrote commentaries on different parts of the Talmud in which hair-splitting arguments were raised and discussed; and at times these arguments dealt with matters which were of no practical importance. At the same time, many miracle workers made their appearance among the Jews of Poland, HP G62-166SB Batteryculminating in a series of false “Messianic” movements, most famously as Sabbatianism was succeeded by Frankism.

In this time of mysticism and overly formal rabbinism came the teachings of Israel ben Eliezer, HP G62-200XX Battery known as the Baal Shem Tov, or BeShT, (1698–1760), which had a profound effect on the Jews of Eastern Europe and Poland in particular. His disciples taught and encouraged the new fervent brand of Judaism based on Kabbalah known as Hasidism. The rise of Hasidic Judaism within Poland’s borders and beyond had a great influence on the rise of Haredi Judaism all over the world, HP G62-201XX Battery with a continuous influence through its many Hasidic dynasties including those of Chabad-Lubavitch, Aleksander, Bobov, Ger, Nadvorna, among others. More recent rebbes of Polish origin include Rabbi Yosef Yitzchok Schneersohn (1880–1950), the sixth head of the Chabad Lubavitch Hasidic movement, HP G62-219WM Batterywho lived in Warsaw until 1940 when he moved Lubavitch from Warsaw to the United States. See also: List of Polish Rabbis

[edit]19th century

The Jews in Central Europe (1881) HP G62-251XX Battery

In the Papal States, which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called ghettos. Until the 1840s, they were required to regularly attend sermons urging their conversion to Christianity. Only Jews were taxed to support state boarding schools for Jewish converts to Christianity. HP G62-400 Battery It was illegal to convert from Christianity to Judaism. Sometimes Jews were baptized involuntarily, and, even when such baptisms were illegal, forced to practice the Christian religion. In many such cases the state separated them from their families. HP G62-450SA Battery See Edgardo Mortara for an account of one of the most widely publicized instances of acrimony between Catholics and Jews in the Papal States in the second half of the 19th century.

The movement of Zionism originates in the late 19th century. In 1883, Nathan Birnbaum founded Kadimah, the first Jewish student association in Vienna. HP G62-451SA Battery In 1884, the first issue of Selbstemanzipation (Self Emancipation) appeared, printed by Birnbaum himself. The Dreyfus Affair, which erupted in France in 1894, profoundly shocked emancipated Jews. The depth of antisemitism in a country thought of as the home of enlightenment and liberty led many to question their future security in Europe. HP G62-452SA BatteryAmong those who witnessed the Affair was an Austro-Hungarian (born in Budapest, lived in Vienna) Jewish journalist, Theodor Herzl, who published his pamphlet Der Judenstaat (”The Jewish State”) in 1896 [16] and Altneuland (”The Old New Land”) in 1897.[17] He described the Affair as a personal turning point, Before the Affair, HP G62-454TU Battery Herzl had been anti-Zionist; afterwards he became ardently pro-Zionist. In line with the ideas of 19th century German nationalism Herzl believed in a Jewish state for the Jewish nation. In that way, he argued, the Jews could become a people like all other peoples, and antisemitism would cease to exist.[18]

Herzl infused political Zionism with a new and practical urgencyHP G62-456TU Battery. He brought the World Zionist Organization into being and, together with Nathan Birnbaum, planned its First Congress at Basel in 1897.[19] For the first four years, the World Zionist Organization (WZO) met every year, then, up to the Second World War, they gathered every second year. Since the war, the Congress has met every four years. HP G62-460TX Battery

[edit]World War II and the Holocaust

Main article: Holocaust

The Holocaust (from the Greek ὁλόκαυστον (holókauston): holos, “completely” and kaustos, HP G62-467TX Battery“burnt”), also known as Ha-Shoah (Hebrew: השואה‎), Churben (Yiddish: חורבן), is the term generally used to describe the killing of approximately 6,000,000 European Jews during World War II, as part of a program of deliberate extermination planned and executed by the National Socialist regime in Nazi Germany led by Adolf Hitler. HP G62-468TX Battery

Of cause, accouchement who activate to abstraction at a actual aboriginal age accept added affairs to accomplish in the future. They accretion added adeptness and acquaintance which are priceless and valuable. In addition, belief added now they will accord them the befalling to absolute their adeptness in the approaching and become bigger professionals.

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To sum up, I anticipate that accouchement should accept their absent-minded adolescence with no responsibilities. Moreover, I am abiding that arena helps them advance not alone their basic and anatomy but their adeptness to accomplish decisions, assay things, accomplish conclusions, which is actual acceptable for their future.

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The Cherokees and Native Americans are often viewed as heathens by people in the south along the Bible Belt and the Appalachian Region. However, it is important for individuals to realize that Christianity played a vital role for the Cherokees. The Cherokees in particular were spiritual in their beliefs and they also prayed in their own ways, they accepted the Europeans beliefs because of their openness within several organizations. Overtime several different denominations began to enter into Cherokee lands and slowly began to preach, settle, and eventually convert numerous Cherokees into Christianity.

The Native American culture, having been commonly viewed as heathens by Christians, had their own sets of beliefs prior to the Christianization efforts. Christians did not and some still do not realize that their forms of worship and their beliefs are not that different from Cherokee traditions. The Cherokees believed in a Supreme Being, who was the Creator of all. The term spiritual for the Cherokee culture meant an “active and alive flow of energy that connects us all to the Universal Spirit.” [1] Garrett also describes that to a Cherokee being spiritual is similar to holding on to something that we value, such as a lesson in life that we are taught. That is directly related to the way in which we are brought up as children, and how each family teaches and stresses different moral and traditional values to their offspring. While the term spiritual is interchangeable between a way of life for the Cherokees or a religious belief, the spiritual paths of the Cherokees were not taken away by the Europeans who tried to Christianize them. In fact it seemed that the Cherokees wanted to fit into the European culture and by converting to Christianity they were able to fit in and for them that meant become a more civilized culture as a whole.

Prayer is also another term that people associate with Christianity and modern religions. However, the basis of the term was set years ago by the Native Americans. Prayers for them were often in the form of chants or ceremonies. During a prayer the Cherokees did not ask for anything but guidance, but more commonly prayers were believed to be used to give thanks. “The process of praying for Native Americans is fairly open, but subtle; we use certain hand movements…the same is true [for Native Americans] with pointing the open palm(s) toward the sky in ceremonies, which signifies giving thanks to the Universal Spirit and the Great One.” [2] A prayer may be sent by the offering of tobacco much as the tithes that are paid to a church today.

The Cherokee beliefs were generally polytheistic and the belief in multiple gods existed, but one was held to a higher stature than the others. For instance, they believed that the setting Sun was the holder of evil gods, the reason most of their dwellings had openings that only pointed to the east toward the rising sun. Most believed in some form of afterlife and believed that during the afterlife there would either be punishments or rewards meted out by the Great Spirit. One Cherokee after the conversion to Christianity described his belief prior as: “To reverence the great and Supreme Being, love my friends deeply and to take vengeance on my enemies [and after converting to Christianity] In the Indian devotion there is nothing like pure religion. Tho’ they have faint ideas of Deity, yet they are far from loving him with all the heart.” [3] The Christian Cherokee reported his findings in 1823; nearly 25 years after the missionaries began entering the Cherokee country.  

The process of Christianizing the Cherokees was a long process that took place over the course of several years. Upon initial arrival the problem amongst the missionaries was the language barrier. The Cherokee syllabary was created around 1821. With the use of the syllabary Cherokees could now learn to write their language on paper. In 1824, John Arch a full blooded convert became inspired to translate a section of the Gospel according to St. John into Cherokee. This invention facilitated the transformation of the Cherokees. [4] Then by 1828, Samuel Worcester, the editor for the Cherokee Phoenix[5], translated the Lord’s Prayer.[6]

Missionaries began coming into America as early as 1566 with a Catholic Priest by the name of Father Rogers. Rogers upon contact with the Native Americans was uncertain and was unable to communicate with them. Rogers was not able to provide much teaching to the Cherokees, but he was the first recorded missionary. [7] Rogers was not the only missionary to enter and not be able to communicate with the Native Americans. In 1758, a Presbyterian missionary by the name of John Martin began trying to devise a plan to convert Cherokees into Christianity, and in 1799 Moravians entered the Cherokee land and was taken aback at how they were unable to communicate with them.

In the early 1800’s, missions into the Cherokee lands began to increase. At first the Cherokees was not officially opposed to the preaching of Christianity, but they did not want churches built. Cherokees instead wanted their children to be able to attend a school and learn reading, writing, and arithmetic so that their children would be able to communicate with the increase number of Europeans. The Cherokees wanted their children learn all that they could so that they would not be as illiterate and ignorant as they considered themselves to be. The same concepts exist today with the parents of children wanting their children to go beyond what they have been able to accomplish.

Gideon Blackburn, a Presbyterian who was contacted by John Martin after he had visited the Cherokee country, began asking for a government grant in order to educate the Indians. The process was slow and the two began talking in 1758, but it was 1803 before Blackburn received a grant of two hundred dollars in order for him to create a school. Blackburn received the Cherokees approval and was able to construct and establish his first school, one year after receiving his grant. Two years later, in 1806, Blackburn was able to create his second school by using left over funds from the first, and by the success of his first school.

The same year that Blackburn established his school, John Gambold a Moravian missionary was also looking into the Christianization of the Cherokees. Gambold came into the Cherokee country in 1804 and began trying to educate and preach to the Natives. Gambold found out that the Cherokees wanted schools and not churches just as Blackburn had discovered and in 1805 established the Spring Place Missionary School. The missionary school began with mostly young children but later branched out to have some adults in attendance as well, hoping to learn English. In 1819 Spring Place had 2 to 14 children in regular attendance and by 1830 they had 32 adults and 31 children. [8]

Cyrus Kingsbury was the next large player in Christianizing the Cherokees. Kingsbury saw the success of Blackburn and Gambold’s missionary schools and decided to create some of his own. In 1816 Kingsbury, created the Chickamauga Missions School on a 25 acre plantation. The Chickamauga school was a small portion of Kingsbury’s plans to aid in the education of the Cherokees. Kingsbury created what became known as the Brainerd Missions. Brainerd held numerous schools of different branches. Taloney was created in 1819; Creek Path in 1820; Hightower, Willstown, and Haweis in 1823; Candy’s Creek in 1824; New Echota in 1827; Amohee in 1831; and finally Redclay and Running Waters were created in 1835. All of the schools worked together but separately to educate Native Americans living in different parts of Cherokee country during the time period.

In addition to the Moravians and Presbyterian, there were also the Baptists and the Methodists that came to the Cherokee country. The Baptist associations came into Cherokee country from Georgia around 1816. The Baptists and Methodists did not set up any schools; however, they did preach and teach to the Cherokees. The Methodists came into the Cherokee country from Tennessee. The Methodists was under the Conference of Tennessee, directed by William M. Mahan. They set up four schools and had all of them established by 1828. The Baptists and the Methodists found the aid of the Cherokee Phoenix to be very helpful because they could distribute scriptures as well as hymns in both English and Cherokee. [9]

The missionary efforts were great by 1829, it is recorded that there were 1,028 Methodist Converts. The Methodists were the most effect in reaching out the Cherokees first. By 1831, it has been recorded that there were 192 communicants, 120 Baptists, and 74 Moravian converts.[10] According to Gulick in 1960, “There are as far as we know 17 churches.” 11 Baptists, 1 Episcopal, 3 Holiness, 2 Methodists, and the Roman Catholic and Mormon services are held in a community building, all of which would not have been made possible had it not been for the early missionaries that began working toward Christianizing the Cherokees in the early 1800s. Four of the 11 churches that Gulick found still offered church services in the native Cherokee Language. [11]

For the most part, Eastern Cherokee churches preach of the sinfulness and evilness of mankind along with the necessity of the belief in Christ so that the Native American can be saved and escape hells fire. With non-Indian church goers there is an intense emotion. The Native Americans, on the other hand, remain impassive and their social behavior does not typically express emotions during church services. However, they are accepting of the emotional responses of the non-Indian church goers and have grown to expect the outburst. The texts are sometimes sung in the Cherokee language, but they are sung to tunes derived from non-Indian backgrounds. [12]

In conclusion, the Cherokees may have been unwilling to accept Christianity and churches at the beginning, but they finally allowed missionaries to begin creating schools in 1799. To the Cherokees the schools were a necessity for their children to be able to live a civilized life amongst the Europeans. It was easier for them to realize the benefits of education than it was for them to see the benefits of Christianity. However, through the blending of Christianity and education the missionaries were able to accomplish both the education of Native Americans and the converting of Cherokees to Christianity. After 1816, missionaries built a network of boarding schools which catered primarily to the highly acculturated Cherokee leadership of the early 19th century. [13]The progress was great, acceptance was wide spread, and children as well as adults began to attend. The converting of Christianity grew and exists today in the Cherokee Nation. Today many people still view the Native Americans as being uncivilized and heathen, but in reality they have been quick to accept Christianity and are no different than the non-Indian American’s.  

Bibliography

Baird, W. David. “Cherokees and MIssionaries, 1789-1839.” The Western Historical Quarterly (Western Historical Quarterly, Utah State University ) 16, no. 2 (1985): 191.

Collins, Linton. “The Activities of the Missionaries Among the Cherokees .” The Georgia Historical Quarterly (Georgia Historical Society ) 6, no. 4 (1922): 285-322.

Corman, Catherine. “Writing Indians: Literacy, Christianity, and Native Community in Early America .” The William and Mary Quarterly (Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture ) 58, no. 3 (2001): 742-745.

Garrett, J.T. and Garret, Michael. Medicine of the Cherokee: The Way of Right Relationship . Santa Fe, New Mexico : Bear and Company Publishing , 1996.

Gulick, John. Cherokees at the Crossroads . Chapel Hill , North Carolina : University of North Carolina , 1960.

Kilpatrick, Alan. “A Note on Cherokee Theological Concepts .” American Indian Quarterly (University of Nebraska Press) 19, no. 3 (1995): 385-405.

Malone, Henry. Chrokees of the Old South . Atlanta , Georgia : The University of Georgia Press, 1956.

McNally, Michael. “The Practice of Native American Christianity .” Church History (Cambridge University Press) 69, no. 4 (2000): 834-859.

Perdue, Theda. “Cherokees and Missionaries, 1789-1839.” American Indian Quarterly (University of Nebraska Press ) 9, no. 2 (1985): 188-191.

[1] Garrett, Medicine of the Cherokee, page 110.

[2] Garrett, Medicine of the Cherokee, Page 116.

[3] Malone, Cherokees of the Old South: A People in Transition, Page 91.

[4] From a Note on Cherokee Theological Concepts, the article points out how without a written language the Europeans had great difficulties in communicating with the Native Americans who spoke mostly in their own language.

[5] The Cherokee Phoenix was originally called the Cherokee Press at New Echota and that led to the Phoenix which became a National Newspaper by 1828.

[6] Malone, Cherokees of the Old South: A people in Transition, page 114.

[7] Extracted from a journal Article, A Note on Cherokee Theological Concepts.

[8] Malone, Cherokees of the Old South: A people in transition, page 95.

[9] Collins, Activities of the Missionaries among the Cherokee, page 18.

[10] Malone, Cherokees of the Old South: A people in transition, Page 117.

[11] Gulick, Cherokees at the Crossroads, page 36.

[12] Gulick, Cherokees at the Crossroads, pages 118-119 goes into great detail describing the non-Indian verses the Indian churches.

[13] Perdue, Cherokees and Missionaries. 

Then again Filipino is a nationality not a race but race has also been acknowledged as a concept with no more obvious purpose than to enforce inequality and control of others. It’s a concept best done away with.

The entire concept of “Proud Filipino” arrives as something that serves to be propaganda. A mere tool to gather nationalistic pride but in a world that is globalized where is the point, at some time one must consider the entirety of the human population to be integrated, the difference of nations is nothing more than pointless pride.At the truly mortifying point we could end up like the United States, not in the wealth but in the creation of a cultural melting pot. A cultural melting pot is not that bad, USA is not that bad but when all cultures dissolve into one and at the same time we lose everything, the identity of who you were and all the culture and beauty that was once “Filipino” becomes nonexistent. At the other end of the table we have the over nationalistic Nazi Germany. Nationalistic to the point of wiping out all that is not German, all that is less than their nation.

Even the popular site called “9gag” has been plagued with the idea of a “Proud Filipino.” Every time there is a post about the Philippines or a Filipino the term “Here comes the Philippine 9gag  army” or what not becomes apparent. Even the whole “It’s more fun in the Philippines” has gotten on people’s nerves. So again I ask is the entire concept of being a “Proud Filipino” good? We have at one end the loss of our culture and values, on the other the possibe propagation of racism and segregation. 

Discussion and presentation sendri was held in cooperation with the ICRAF (International Centre for Research in Agroforestry) and JAPHAMA (Network Supporting the Rights of Indigenous Peoples). On 26 – May 28, 2000 in Cisarua, West Java. And at the moment shops are also declared.
 
Overview Presentation

In the first discussion, the presenter Sandra Moniaga highlights to what is referred to as the follow-up (follow up) of the National Conference on Management of Natural Resources (KNPSDA), which was attended by Department Sector, Universities, NGOs, and private parties, chaired by the Minister Environment. And of course the event was attended by 284 participants from various regions and across sectors.

Results KNPSDA produces several items on a four-level reforms, including:

A. Politics and Civil Society: The process of empowerment of civil society with a redefinition of the role of government, the recommendation is the abolition of the military’s role in the natural resource sector.

2. Economic and Business Climate: There is a paradigm in which the reforms will be developed economy.

3. Culture and Education: Changes in substance and methodology of education and decentralization of education where there are removal uniformity.

4. Law and Policy Natural Resources Management: The existence of legal reform as a whole, regarding the legal matter of law to the conception of the organic regulations, the institutional system (either the courts or administrative agencies managing natural resources), development of legal consciousness of the community. Associated with indigenous peoples is that the campaign would have ratified ILO 169.

What is Indigenous?

Indigenous peoples are groups of people who have ancestral origin (hereditary) in a particular geographic area, and has a value system, ideology, economic, political, cultural, social, and the region itself. The agreement of the formulation of the definition of indigenous peoples is achieved at a Congress of Indigenous Peoples Nusantara I ever held in March 1999.

Indonesia as a country that has the most islands from small to large including complicated in this case where the country is composed of a wide range and diversity of indigenous peoples have their own characteristics to khasan. And it is proper existence of indigenous groups who bertebarn throughout the Indonesian archipelago and in each province should be proud of it, this happens because of the existence of indigenous peoples and a wealth of input can be a source of pleasure for people of Indonesia. Good fortune that can generate income for the country as well as a source of knowledge for researchers from across the continent that was therein lies the benefit of indigenous peoples as a contribution that can be given to the nation of Indonesia. Unlike some countries in Asia or even Europe that often they have only one indigenous peoples and indigenous peoples are often even as a forerunner of the country, such as American Indians or the Aborigines in Australia who just lately many marginalized.

In the other countries a lot of terms used in articulating what it is aiming indigenous peoples, such as first peoples among anthropologists and defenders, first nation in the United States and Canada, indigenous cultural communities in the Philippines, the nation of origin and native people in Malaysia. While at the UN level penggunaanindigenous peoples as expressed in the entire document that addresses one of the draft UN declaration, which is on the UN draft declaration on the Rights of the Indigenous Peoples.

Indigenous People as Part Reality

There is no doubt, from the previous exposure of indigenous peoples in Indonesia also contributed its own generated as indicated in the previous explanation. But in reality it is very unfortunate, this happens because the indigenous people often get marginalized role in the structure of the concept of development in Indonesia and have the distinction of Indonesian society in general.

This loss occurs because the affected indigenous peoples of the development process undertaken by the government where it is destined to be massive over the other, more dominant group, sad indeed to see this because indigenous peoples should also be given more freedom and equal rights to participate development process undertaken by the government, indigenous peoples should be given flexibility in protecting themselves and their culture and resist changes that negatively affect their livelihood. But the distinction is not infrequently happens that just because something has the potential factors increasing marginalization of indigenous peoples against the other mastarakat.

Early explanations of indigenous peoples as it is known mostly for students, where the division terkelompokkan as a group of indigenous hunter-gatherers, shifting cultivators, and farmers settled. But there is another side of the researchers who conduct pengelompokkannya of socio-ecological perspective, this grouping is to simplify the diversity is not but it is more about the ease in understanding and treating conditions of indigenous groups as appropriate.

The first group are, among others, community groups and communities in Florida Kanekes Kajang in South Sulawesi who put themselves as the “hermit-earth” who believe that they are the peoples ‘elected’ in charge of maintaining the sustainability of the earth with prayer and austerity. Character of their lives is reflected in their daily lives darai both behavior-doings of their work and style of dress.

The second group is, among other Kasepuhan Society and Society of the Naga Tribe is also quite strict in maintaining and running custom, but still wide enough open space for the existence of relations of ‘commercial’ to the outside world.

The third group is indigenous peoples who live depending on the nature (forest, river, sea etc.) and developed a unique management system but do not develop a strict customary for residential as well as the choice of plants when compared with the community and Kasepuhan Kanekes. Included in this group such as the Indigenous Peoples, and Dayak communities Penan in Borneo, and the Society Pakava Lindu in Central Sulawesi, Society and the Society Deponsoro Dani in West Papua, Community and Society Krui in Lampung Haruku Kei and Society in the Moluccas. In general they have a system of natural resource management are outstanding (they show high science) and close to nature. In Maluku and Papua, indigenous peoples who live on the island – a small island and coastal areas have a system of ‘thrill’ or ban harvesting or taking of nature for a certain time. Sasi fish lompa Haruku Island is renowned as a unique annual event for communities on the island of Ambon Haruku and (before the riots occurred) which shows one form of traditional wisdom in protecting the environment. With the enactment of SASI or species and in certain areas by Kewang (a kind of indigenous police in Central Maluku), then people do not have the right to take these species. This provision allows the developer-biakqan and enlargement of the fish lompa, for later in the harvest when sasi is opened again.

The fourth group are those who are deprived of natural resource management arrangements that the “original” as a result of colonialism that has evolved over hundreds of years. Those who could be included in this group is, for example, Deli Malay community living in the area of ​​tobacco plantations in North Sumatra and referred to himself as the People Watcher.

Recognizing the diversity of indigenous peoples, in fact there are many other groupings that could be developed include, among others, for the Punan and Just Society (Bajao) who tend to live either in the forest nomedik and at sea.

A reflection terseniri in addressing indigenous entities currently exists another dimension of the relationship of indigenous peoples and the environment is a reality in which some indigenous peoples are also involved working with the parties that develop activities damaging to the environment. Very ironic memnag when the facts speak for where the rights of indigenous peoples deprived neighborhoods and the habitat they were raped by the parties know that without the responsibility or the exploitation of mining membabatnya large skla both individually and on behalf of the company that it illegally and who have no alternative wild other revenue sources.

In this context, the extent of these activities is not a collective decision of the concerned communities and activities should be placed as individual responsibility of perpetrators. Whereas if the activity was determined according to their custom, it must be accepted as the decision in question and not the responsibility of all indigenous peoples.

14. Singer, musician, and actor Elvis Presley was one of the biggest names in rock and roll—on the radio, TV, and screen, affording him his Graceland mansion.

13. Elvis’ musical style was a combination of black Rhythm & Blues, country, blues, pop music of the day, and gospel. His stage performance was a novelty thing in the 1950s, with lots of swiweling dance movements that some parents and church people considered vulgar and a dangerous influence to their teenagers.

12. ELVIS was one of twins — but his brother Jesse was stillborn.

11. Elvis was a black belt in karate. He took up martial arts under the shotokan sensei Jürgen Seydal, while fulfilling his military duties in Germany in 1958.

10. Elvis once had a pet chimpanzee by the name of Scatter, who was known to relish on booze and wreak havoc. It died in the late 1960s.

9. Born in Tupelo, Mississippi, Presley moved to Memphis, Tennessee, with his family at the age of 13. He began his career there in 1954, working with Sun Records owner Sam Phillips, who wanted to bring the sound of African American music to a wider audience.

8. In 1977 he died of heart failure related to his drug addiction. Even after his death, Presley has remained a popular music icon.

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7. Elvis also started making movies in 1956 with the film “Love Me Tender” – acting had been his dream for a long time.

6. The famous black hair was dyed — the real colour was brown.

5. On 21 December 1970, Presley met President Nixon at the White House. Presley had initiated the meeting with a six-page letter to the President, in which he had spelt out his desire to be made a “Federal Agent-at-Large” in the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs.

4. Friends Elvis Presley and actor-singer Johnny Cash would sometimes impersonate each other.

3. He was inducted into the Army on March 24, 1958

2. Raised by loving, working-class parents, Presley’s family had little money, and they moved around a lot. He was deeply devoted to his parents, especially his mother Gladys, and was raised to have a strong faith in God.

1. Movies from this early period are “Loving You”, “Jailhouse Rock”, and “King Creole”. Soon after returning from the army in 1961 he abandoned singing to live audiences and turned exclusively to film making.

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