Banner System: Military Organization of China and Manchuria

Each was grouped beneath a colored ”plain” banner commanded by one of his kinsmen: blue, red, yellow, and white. In 1615-1616 he added four banners under ”bordered” flags using the same four colors. About 300 ”households” made up a company (Chinese ”zuoling,” Manchu ”niru”), with 25 companies comprising a banner.

This organization allowed coordinated and flexible tactical maneuvers; and the banners built unit solidarity and morale. Yet, they remained loyal to their generals as much as to Nurgaci or his son, Hong Taiji, until the conquest of Ming China. Late in that campaign, which lasted in the north from 1618 to 1644, Han Chinese and Mongol banners were formed within the Qing army from ”ujen cooha” immigrant units which fought under a distinct black banner in the early 1600s. Chinese martial banners and Mongol units were officially added in 1642, raising the number of banners to 24 (with additional specialized companies): eight Manchu, eight Mongol, and eight Chinese.

Additional banners were added later for ”New Manchus” (the Sibo of Siberia) and Muslims from Turkmenistan. Many of the ethnically Han soldiers were experienced professionals, released prisoners of war who swore allegiance to the Manchus, or they were renegades. Unlike the Manchus, the Chinese knew how to cast cannon and were skilled in siegecraft, which was important when facing China’s fortified cities. On the other hand, Han banners did not tend herds in the winter but had to be maintained year round, unlike Manchus and Mongols who were used to life as seasonal campaigners. This fact forced the Qing to modernize their empire and added incentive to acquire richer lands in China. After 1644 an elite guard drawn from the banners was positioned around Beijing displacing the armed eunuchs who previously guarded the Forbidden City. A few Russian captives also served in Qing banners. The banners survived to the end of the dynasty