Battles Before the 17th Century

When they did, until the 16th century the principal tactic was to close rapidly and grapple and board the enemy vessel. Combat at sea was, until the mounting of gunpowder cannon in the prows of galleys and broadside artillery on ships of sail, largely a matter of closing, ramming, grappling, boarding, and hand-to-hand and face-to-face killing and maiming. Opposing ships of sail would first maneuver for position, trying to catch the weather gauge and windward position. In a galley-to-sail action, the galleys had the upper hand initially as they were faster and more maneuverable, especially into the wind. As ships closed, if one had castles and the other did not, the height-advantaged troops would shower the enemy with missiles: stones, quarrels, and arrows, arquebus and swivel gun fire. If the wind was to their back they would throw lime over the enemy to blind him, unless he had anticipated this and erected protective nets. Also thrown were pots of hot pitch, resin, and oil, started aflame with fire arrows.

Or soaps might be spilled, slicking the enemy’s deck to impede his boarders or hamper his defense. Greek Fire was spat from flamethrowers by Byzantine ships. In the Atlantic pots de fer were launched at the enemy, or flaming tar arrows fired into his hull and deck. Weapons specialists with unique broadhead arrows that tore through sails went into action, while men with scythes cut the enemy’s rigging, disabling his ship while other men fought his crew and marines. Once ships grappled, every slashing, puncturing, clubbing, thrusting, murderous hand weapon available for land warfare was used at sea as well. Close fighting seldom allowed for taking prisoners or for giving or receiving quarter. Land combat was largely a matter of prolonged sieges and confused skirmishes. Small garrisons sallied to harass enemy lines and camps, or attacking infantry stormed broken town or fortress walls where a beech was made by artillery bombardment or a sapper’s tunnel or mine. When field armies clashed the fighting was at remarkably close quarters. The carnage and savagery of a Swiss square was awesome, as men hacked off limbs or heads from other men and their horses, and impaled each other with ”push of pike.”

Even when arquebusiers arrived on the battlefield fighting remained close: early hand guns were hardly accurate past 50-75 yards, and produced so much obscuring smoke that beyond the first volley or two little visual contact was had with the enemy, or even one’s own formations. As a result, after discharging single-shot, muzzle-loading arquebuses or muskets, infantry advanced to engage in hand-to-hand fighting, deploying pikes, using muskets as clubs, thrusting and slashing at legs and belly with hard steel axes or swords or halberds. If winning cavalry had chased the opponent’s horse from the field, it overran the baggage train or pivoted to attack into the flank of the enemy’s infantry. As one side prevailed at the bloody, slogging, smoke-beclouded front, the enemy’s formation disintegrated as file after file broke and ran from the rear, abandoning beaten comrades in the front files to wounding or death.