Communism in Practice: A Sophisticated Ideology

One of these features was totalitarianism. In totalitarian countries, the government controls almost all aspects of people’s lives. Communist countries also were party states. In a party state, the ruling party dominates all government bodies. The countries had centrally planned economies, also called command economies, economies in which the state owned the means of production and the government planned most economic activity. Finally, Communist countries valued cooperation and collective (group) needs over personal freedom. In other words, they considered the well-being of the state and society to be more important than that of the individual.

The Communist Party performed four important roles in Communist systems. (1) It carefully selected party members. (2) It maintained total control over public policies. (3) It supervised every branch of government. (4) It carefully screened people for key jobs throughout society.

In Communist countries, the Communist Party functioned according to an idea introduced by Lenin called democratic centralism. According to this idea, all party members were required to support all decisions made by the party. Dissent from the party line (the party’s policies) was called factionalism and could result in dismissal from the Communist Party.

Communist Party structure has varied from country to country. But Communist parties have shared certain basic characteristics.

The traditional Communist Party is structured like a pyramid. At the bottom of the pyramid are numerous local party organizations, formerly called cells. In the middle are various regional and district organizations. At the top is a party congress, made up of delegates from party organizations throughout the country.

Party congresses meet periodically, usually every three to five years. During meetings, each congress votes on issues facing the country and the party. It also elects the party’s Central Committee, an administrative body.

Party congresses have more power in theory than in practice. They almost always vote according to the wishes of the most important Communist Party leaders. In addition, members of the Central Committee are already chosen before each congress, which merely approves those choices.

The most powerful administrative bodies are the Central Committee, the Politburo, and the Secretariat. The Central Committee carries out the work of the party between congresses. It also approves the elections of members of the Politburo and the Secretariat. The Politburo sets all important government policies. The Secretariat manages the daily work of the party. The head of the Secretariat, called the general secretary, is the most powerful person in the party and in the country.

Marx believed that in a Communist society, the powers of the state-and eventually the state itself-would gradually disappear. But no Communist country ever eliminated the state. Communists believed that a state dominated by the Communist Party was necessary to defend Communist countries against capitalist influence from other countries. Therefore, secret police as well as regular police forces and a strong military establishment would be needed until Communism had been attained worldwide.

In Communist states, all power rested with the Communist Party. The people who led the party also headed the government. The individuals who made up the government bureaucracy (the system of officials who carry out governmental functions) were all party members.

Communist governments established policies that they claimed were democratic, and thus representative of Marx’s ideals. But these policies were actually undemocratic. For example, governments held local and national elections but limited the choice to only one candidate or to candidates of a single party. Legislatures that supposedly represented the people passed without question all laws proposed by Communist Party leaders. Constitutions that, in theory, protected people’s rights were repeatedly violated by Communist leaders.

Marx predicted that central planning of industrial and agricultural production would guarantee economic efficiency, job security, and income equality. Communist countries therefore nationalized (put under government control) factories and farms and established procedures for planning economic activity.

Communist planners made decisions that in non-Communist countries are made by individuals and corporations. Government planners determined what raw materials would be produced, when and where they would be produced, and what products they would be used to manufacture. The planners also decided to whom and at what prices the finished products would be sold. The planners had to ensure that resources and skilled labor were in the right place at the right time.

Communist economies experienced some success. Centralization enabled governments to focus their energies and rapidly industrialize their countries. It also helped the Soviet Union build up its military forces. Literacy and employment rates soared in Communist countries. In addition, Communist countries distributed income fairly equally. Therefore, the difference between the lowest and the highest wages was much smaller in Communist countries than in capitalist countries.

The centrally planned economy created serious problems, however, because it was inefficient. State-set prices did not reflect the actual cost of production, leading to waste of resources. The planned economy also failed to provide high-quality goods and services and could not respond quickly to changes in consumer demand. In many cases, consumer goods and housing were in short supply, and state-run farms did not produce adequate supplies of food. The shortages occurred partly because worker productivity and creativity lagged. Workers had little motivation to be productive because their wages remained about the same regardless of how much they produced.

In addition, the economy was not as fair as it may have appeared. Communist Party leaders and members of the bureaucracy enjoyed privileges denied to other citizens. These people and their families had special access to government cars, well-stocked grocery stores, comfortable housing, and better health care. As a result, they achieved a significantly higher standard of living than the average citizen, despite similarities in monetary income.

Communist leaders traditionally considered the needs of society more important than individual rights and liberties. As a result, personal freedoms were severely restricted. The amount of police repression varied, however. For example, when Joseph Stalin was dictator of the Soviet Union from 1929 to 1953, millions of Soviet citizens were executed or sent to labor camps. The government also ordered people to spy on their neighbors and encouraged them to inform on their family members. Stalin adopted these measures to eliminate real and imagined opposition to his policies. Similar conditions existed in China under Mao Zedong, who ruled that country from 1949 to 1976.

After Stalin’s death in 1953, most Communist governments shifted from open terror to more subtle forms of repression. For example, they threatened to fire people from their jobs or to deny them a new apartment if they opposed the government. Governments also used material rewards to encourage obedience from citizens. A similar transition occurred in China after the death of Mao.

In Communist countries, individuals generally were free to do and say what they wished among friends and family. But they were not allowed to publicly criticize Communist Party leaders or policies or to openly oppose the Communist system. Governments also did not permit people to establish organizations or publications that opposed Communism. In addition, writers who were critical of Communism were not allowed to publish their work. All these restrictions existed despite the fact that many Communist governments had constitutions claiming to guarantee the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly.

Communists in most countries discouraged religious worship because they considered religion a threat to Communism. Church members found it more difficult to advance in their jobs and were not allowed to join the Communist Party.