Cultures of North America

The population of the present day United States during the 1490’s is relatively unknown, but an estimated 10 million people lived there. Most Native Americans lived in small tribes of about 300 people. The men made tools and hunt, while the women grew crops. Some of the tribes were nomadic (traveled). There were a few tribes with more complex societies. The Pueblos developed intricate systems of irrigation and had large multistoried buildings. In the North-east there was the Iroquois Confederacy which withstood attacks through alliance.

Cultures of Central and South America

There was a greater population in Central and South America than there was in North America. The estimated population of Central and South America is 25 million people. There were three major civilizations in the area. The Mayas built remarkable cities in the rain forests. Centuries later the Aztecs in central Mexico and the Incas in Peru ruled over vast empires. They created calendars based on accurate scientific observation and had intricate systems of trade. The Aztec’s capital of Tenochtitlan was the size and population of the largest cities in Europe.

Europe Moves toward Exploration

Until the late 1400’s Americans had no knowledge of those across the ocean. There was minor contact between certain people in the Americas prior (ie Vikings). Columbus’ voyages finally brought the Europeans and the Americans together.

Improvements in Technology

During this time there was a rebirth in classical learning and art and science known as the Renaissance. The Renaissance was at its height in the late 1400’s and the early 1500’s. The Europeans were able to advance in gunpowder, sailing compass, shipbuilding, mapmaking, and the printing press.

Religious Conflict

There was great religious conflict by the later years of the Renaissance. The Protestant Revolt and the growing followers of Islam scared Roman Catholics. Spain was partly conquered by Muslim invaders, and on 1492 (the year Columbus set sail) Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand expelled them in Granada. The Roman Catholics were able to control all of Spain now. In the early 1500’s certain Christians in Germany, England, France, Holland, and other northern European countries revolted against the authority of the Pope in Rome, known as the Protestant Reformation. The Protestants wanted to spread their religion to other non-Christians, and the Catholics wanted the same. Therefore, the two groups attempted to explore in hopes of spreading their religion.

Expanding Trade

European kingdoms generally traded with China, India, and Africa through Venice and Constantinople on overland routes. However, the Ottoman Turks seized Constantinople ending trade with countries in Asia. Therefore, the other countries had to find another way of trading with these areas. Portugal’s Prince Henry the Navigator sponsored many explorations around Africa. The Portuguese Vasco de Gama was the first European explorer to reach India by navigating around Africa.

Developing Nation-States

Monarchs at this time were gaining power and creating nation-states. A nation state is a country in which the majority of the people share both a common culture and common political loyalties toward a central government. These nation-states were greatly dependant on trade for revenue.

Early Explorations

Columbus was able to receive funding for his expedition from the two Spanish Monarchs. Columbus landed in the Bahamas. There were many injustices the Native Americans had to deal with when the Europeans stole their lands. The Native Americans introduced the Europeans to many new plants and foods. They also infected Europeans with syphilis for the first time. Europeans brought some livestock, plants, and weaponry. However, deadlier than all the guns was the European importation of germs and diseases, such as smallpox and measles. The mortality rate was over 90 percent for Native Americans because of these diseases.

Dividing the New World

Spain and Portugal were the first countries to claim these new lands. The two kingdoms went to the pope in order to help divide the lands. The pope drew a line and everything east of it was Portugal’s and everything west was Spain’s. In 1494 the two kingdoms signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, which moved the line a few degrees to the west. Portugal was able to establish claim to present-day Brazil. Spain claimed the rest.

Spanish Exploration and Conquest

Spain owed its power to its many conquistadors who explored new lands. The Conquistadors sent ships loaded with gold and silver back to Spain. This increased the gold supply by over 500 percent making Spain the richest and most powerful nation in Europe. The Spanish turned to the encomienda system, with the King giving grants of land and Native Americans to individual Spaniards. The Spaniards treated their Native Americans brutally who had to work for the Spaniards (as slaves), and when their population started to diminish the Spaniards brought in slaves from West Africa under the asiento system.

English Claims

England was able to claim territory in the New World due to John Cabot under the funds of England’s King Henry VII. However, England did not fund anymore expeditions after that. Under Queen Elizabeth the English were able to challenge the Spanish shipping. A notorious explorer was Sir Francis Duke; another was Sir Walter Raleigh, who tried to set up the lost colony of Roanoke Island.

French Claims

The French showed interest in exploration with its navigator Giovanni da Verrazano. Verrazano explored North America’s eastern coast, including New York Harbor. Like the English the French were slow to develop colonies. The first permanent French settlement in America was established by Samuel de Champlain in Quebec.

Dutch Claims

The Dutch government hired Henry Hudson for their voyages. They developed a settlement in New Amsterdam (later New York). A private joint-stock company, the Dutch West India Company was given the privilege of taking control of the region for economic gain.

Early English Settlements

By the early 1600’s England was ready to explore further. They defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588, England then consumed the reputation of a major naval power. England’s population was growing rapidly while its economy was depressed. There were large numbers of poor landless people who were attracted to the economic opportunities in America. The English devised a joint-stock company which pooled the savings of people of moderate means and supported trading ventures that seemed potentially profitable. King James I created the Virginia Company, which established the first permanent English colony in America at Jamestown in 1607. There were many hardships such as diseases, Indian raids, and many of the men were unaccustomed to physical work that was required. Furthermore, many of the adventurers were only interested in mining gold (which there wasn’t any in Jamestown) and refused to do laborious work unless it was mining gold. Therefore, the colony was starving to death. John Smith was able to lead the colony and the tobacco industry by John Rolfe flourished. Rolfe and his wife, Pocahontas, developed a new variety of tobacco which became very popular in Europe. There was a large amount of labor needed for the tobacco industry, thus the company resorted to indentured servants. Indentured servitude was the sending over of people who worked as servants for a certain number of years in return for the trip to the Americas. The company soon began to employ a combination of forced labor, slavery, and free labor, indentured servitude. The Virginia Company was falling into great debt, and the charter was revoked in 1624, and the colony came under the control of King James I. Virginia became England’s first royal colony.

The colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay were created due to religious motivation. Both were settled by Protestants who believed in John Calvin’s teachings including that of predestination. The Anglican Church or Protestant Church was founded by Henry VIII and was under the control of the English Monarch rather than the Pope. During the reign of James I, people wanted to change the Anglican Church (make it more different from that of the Roman Catholic Church). These people wanted to “purify” the church, and became known as the Puritans. James I arrested many of these people.

There was a group of Puritans who did not want to simply reform the Church of England but wanted to separate from it, they became known as the Separatists. Several hundred Pilgrims as they were called left England for religious freedom. They first went to Holland, but economic and cultural problems occurred so they decided to settle a new colony. In 1620 a small group of pilgrims set aboard the Mayflower. Less than half of the hundred passengers were actually separatists the rest were in for economic reasons. The Mayflower landed a few hundred miles north of Jamestown and instead of going south they remained there. They established the colony at Plymouth. After the first winter when they were half diminished they were helped by Native Americans. They celebrated the first thanksgiving in 1621. Under strong leaders such as Captain Miles Standish and Governor William Bradford, the colony grew slowly. Fish, furs, and lumber gave them economic power.

In England under the control of the new King Charles I, Puritans were even more persecuted. Another group of Puritans (not Separatists) gained a royal charter and established the Massachusetts Bay Company (1629). About a thousand Puritans led by John Winthrop sailed to Massachusetts shore and founded Boston. A Civil War in England drove 15,000 more settlers to Massachusetts in the movement known as the Great Migration.

Early Political Institutions

England allowed its American colonies a certain degree of self-rule. In Plymouth the Pilgrims drew up and signed a document that pledged them to make decisions by majority. This document was known as the Mayflower Compact. This was an early crude form of a written constitution, establishing powers and duties of the government.

In Jamestown, the Virginia Company attempted to encourage others to go to Jamestown by stating the new settlers would be given the same rights they had in England. In just 12 years, they organized the first representative assembly in America, the House of Burgesses.

In the Massachusetts Bay Colony, there was limited but important democratic action. All male members of the Puritan Church have the right to participate in the yearly elections of the colony’s governor, his assistants, and a representative assembly.

A sizeable part of the colonial population in America was excluded from the political process. Only male property owners could vote representatives, those who were either female or landless had a few rights, slaves and indentured servants had practically none. Many of the governors of the colony ruled with autocratic or unlimited powers, answering only to the King. There was also widespread mistreatment towards the Native Americans.

Spanish Settlements in Northern America

The Spanish settlements developed very slowly because of limited mineral resources and opposition from Native Americans. Spanish developed a settlement in St. Augustine, which is today the oldest city in North America (1565). Santa Fe was established as the capital of New Mexico in 1609. Harsh efforts to Christianize North Americans caused the Pueblo people to revolt in 1680. After the Spanish were driven away from New Mexico they established many settlements in Texas to prevent French expansion. To counter the Russian exploration of Alaska, the Spanish built settlements in San Diego and San Francisco.

European Treatment of Native Americans

The different colonizing nations had different methods of dealing with the Native Americans. The Spanish approach was to conquer, rule, and intermarry. The English pushed away the Native American tribes. The French treated the Native Americans as economic and military allies. The Europeans in general viewed the Native Americans as inferior. Two long term effects of European colonization were the destruction by disease and war of large segments of the Native American population, and the establishment of a permanent legacy of subjugation.

Spanish Policy

In Spanish territory, millions of Native Americans died from enslavement and European diseases, which they had no immunity to. The Spanish colonists generally intermarried with the natives and blacks because few families came from Spain. A rigid class system developed that was dominated by pure-blooded Spaniards.

English Policy

Initially, at least in Massachusetts the English and Native Americans coexisted, traded, and shared ideas. The Native Americans taught the settlers how to grow new crops, and how to hunt. They traded various furs for English manufactured goods such as tools and weapons. Soon peaceful relations gave way and there was open warfare. The English had no respect for Native American cultures.

French Policy

The French maintained relatively good relations with the Native American tribes. The French wanted control of the fur trade, so they built various trading posts along the St. Lawrence River, the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi River. The French had very little population in the America’s so they posed little threat.