Part one of this series, Kings and Queens of England: Early Saxons (924-1016), examined the reigns of the first Saxon monarchs to claim to rule the whole of England. Starting with Æthelstan in 924, I progressed through the reigns of Edmund I, Eadred, Eadwig, Edgar, Edward the Martyr and Æthelred II (the Unready).

In part two it will be necessary to go back three years from Æthelred’s death to investigate the short reign of Swein Forkbeard. Following this I will look at the lives of Edmund II, Cnut, Harold I and Harthacnut, the last of the Danish kings of England.

The later Saxon kings of England (Image by Author)

The Danish kings of England (Image by Author)

Swein (1013-1014)

Swein Forkbeard (Image via Wikimedia Commons)

Swein Haraldsson (Swein Forkbeard) was the son of Harald Gormsson (Harald Bluetooth), king of Denmark. In 986 or 987, he rebelled against his father, who fled into exile and died soon after.

The kingdom Swein acquired, and his overlordship of Norway, was so secure that he was able to leave it to lead raids overseas, especially in England. His position at home was consolidated after the battle of Maldon, in 991, when the English started paying tribute.

In 992 or 993, Swein defeated Erik, king of the Svear, who lived in what is now eastern Sweden, and Boreslav, ruler of the Poles. After Erik’s death, Swein married his widow, who was also Boreslav’s sister. Erik’s son Olof recognised Swein as the overlord of the Svear.

After a raid up the Thames estuary in 994, Æthelred persuaded Olaf Tryggvason to return to Norway and challenge Swein’s overlordship there. This kept Swein occupied in Norway until 999 when Olaf was defeated and killed. With the Norwegian threat neutralised, Swein returned to leading raids in England between 1003 and 1005, before being forced to return home by a great famine.

Raids continued after 1006, although Swein may not have led them. But when Thorkell the Tall and his army agreed to serve Æthelred as mercenaries in 1012, Swein recognised the threat and decided to invade England.

The invasion force landed in the summer of 1013. From his base in Gainsborough, Swein managed to secure the north. Moving south, he received the submission of Oxford and Wallingford, but a large force in London resisted. After the south-west submitted to him at Bath all other resistance evaporated and the whole country recognised Swein as king. Æthelred was forced to flee to Normandy.

Swein’s reign as king of England was short. He died on 3 February 1014 at Gainsborough and was buried at York, although his remains were moved to Roskilde in Denmark soon afterwards. He was succeeded as king of Denmark by his eldest son Harald, but the English invited Æthelred back as their king.

Edmund II (1016)

Edmund II (Edmund Ironside) was the third son of Æthelred II and his first wife, Ælfgifu. Æthelred’s second son, Ecgberht, died sometime after 1005 and his eldest son, Æthelstan, died in 1014 or 1015, leaving Edmund as heir.

In 1015 Edmund married Ealdgyth, the widow of a murdered Danish thegn called Sigeferth, against his father’s wishes. This was probably in order to strengthen his right to the succession against possible opposition from Æthelred’s sons by his second wife, Emma.

Later that year, Swein Forkbeard’s second son, Cnut, raised an invasion force and landed in Kent. Edmund was successful in raising several armies in 1015 and 1016, but they were ineffective under the leadership of his father. A retreat to London was followed by the death of Æthelred on 23 April. The councillors who were present in London chose Edmund as their new king.

Edmund’s reign was met with an early success when he regained Wessex, but other battles over the next two months were inconclusive. Edmund twice relieved London from Danish sieges and, after winning a battle at Otford, forced Cnut back into Kent. He was finally defeated by Cnut at Assandun (possibly the Essex town of Ashingdon) on 18 October 1016.

Edmund and Cnut made peace at Alney in Gloucestershire. The settlement gave Wessex to Edmund while Cnut took Mercia, Northumbria and a payment for his army.

Edmund died soon after, on 30 November 1016. His death was probably caused by a battle wound or exhaustion, but later chronicles reported unfounded tales of murder. He was buried at Glastonbury Abbey. Edmund’s death left Cnut in control of the whole country, while Edmund’s sons, Edward and Edmund, left England and eventually settled in Hungary.

Cnut (1016-1035)

Cnut (Image via Wikimedia Commons)

Cnut was the second son of Swein Forkbeard and accompanied his father on his invasion of England in 1013. When Swein died in 1014, Cnut was forced to return to Denmark. Cnut left his hostages at Sandwich, but not before mutilating them by removing their hands, noses and ears.

As the elder son, Harald succeeded to the kingdom of Denmark and refused to share it with Cnut. He also refused to help with the conquest of England, leaving Cnut to face the English alone.

With an army raised, Cnut returned to England in September 1015. There followed a year of fighting against the armies of Æthelred and Edmund before the peace settlement at Alney in 1016. When Edmund died that November, Cnut succeeded to the entire kingdom.

In 1017 the country was temporarily divided into four regions. Cnut’s brother-in-law, Erik of Hlathir, was given Northumbria, Eadric Streona gained Mercia, East Anglia went to Thorkell the Tall, while Cnut kept control of Wessex. This division lasted only until Cnut’s position was stronger. Eadric was killed at Christmas 1017 and Thorkell was outlawed in 1021.

English landowners outnumbered Scandinavians during Cnut’s reign despite being defeated by a foreign army. Land changed hands based mainly on an ability to pay the high taxes that were levied to pay off the invading army and keep a fleet of ships. Those who were related to Edmund, or were his strongest supporters, were killed or exiled early on.

Before he became king, Cnut took Ælfgifu of Northampton as his consort. Together they had two sons, Swein and Harold. But in 1017 he married Æthelred’s widow, Emma, to remove the threat posed by their sons, Edward and Alfred, who were in exile in Normandy. The marriage produced one son, Harthacnut.

With England secure, Cnut turned his attention abroad. He returned to Denmark in the winter of 1019 and became its king when his brother Harald died. The events remain obscure but Cnut’s subsequent letter to the English states that he had removed a threat.

In Norway, Olaf Haraldsson had seized the crown while Cnut and his followers were busy fighting Edmund in England. After the battle of Holy River (Helgeå), in 1025 or 1026, Cnut offered money to Olaf’s men with the result that little resistance was offered in 1027 and Olaf was defeated. Cnut became king of the Norwegians in 1028 and control of Norway was left in the hands of Earl Hákon. When Hákon died soon after, Norway passed to Cnut’s consort, Ælfgifu, and their son, Swein.

Campaigns were fought in Scotland in 1027 or 1031. Cnut received the submission of several kings including Malcolm II, king of Scots, and Mælbæth (possibly Macbeth) who ruled territory around the Moray Firth.

As a king who had been born in a country that had only recently embraced Christianity, Cnut needed to convince the English of his piety. To this end, his gifts to various religious institutions were generous. Also, two famous incidents served to remind his nobles of his closeness to God.

Sometime after 1028 Cnut had a new crown made that was similar in style to that of the German emperors. He placed the old crown on a crucifix in the Old Minster at Winchester, an act that served as both a generous gift to the church and a symbol of his connection with Christ.

Cnut attempts to turn back the tide (Image by spratmackrel via Flickr)

Also, the one event that most people remember about Cnut, although it was not mentioned in any surviving written account until the 12th century, may have some basis in truth. His failed attempt to turn back the tide was used to show that, although he was a king, he knew his power was not as great as that of God.

Cnut went on a pilgrimage to Rome in 1027. He was present at the coronation of the Holy Roman emperor, Conrad II, on 26 March 1027. Cnut also negotiated reduced tolls for merchants with Pope John XIX.

After a long illness, Cnut died on 12 November 1035 at Shaftsbury. He was initially buried in the Old Minster at Winchester but his remains were moved by the Normans when they built the new cathedral there.

Harold I (1037-1040)

Harold I (Image via Wikimedia Commons)

Harold I (Harold Harefoot) was the younger son of Cnut and his consort, Ælfgifu. Cnut’s intentions for the succession are unclear, but on his death in 1035 Harold seized his father’s treasures and was elected as regent. Some sources claim that the kingdom was to be divided between Harold and his half-brother, Harthacnut.

In 1036 an attempted attack on the south coast by Edward, eldest son of Æthelred II and Emma, failed. A second attempt was made by Edward’s brother, Alfred, but he was captured by Earl Godwine. Alfred was brought before Harold and sentenced to blinding. He died from his wounds.

With Harthacnut detained in Denmark dealing with threats from Norway, Harold was free to be acclaimed king of all England by 1037. Unfortunately, very little is known about his short reign.

Harold died on 17 March 1040 and was the first king buried in Westminster Abbey. When Harthacnut succeeded to the kingdom he had Harold’s body exhumed and thrown into a marsh, possibly as revenge for the death of his half-brother, Alfred.

Harthacnut (1040-1042)

Coin from the reign of Harthacnut (Image via Wikipedia)

Harthacnut was the son of Cnut and his wife, Emma. From 1028 he was joint ruler of Denmark and, when his father died in 1035, had to remain there to deal with a threat from the Norwegian Magnus Olafson. This delay gave his half-brother, Harold, the opportunity to secure the whole English kingdom for himself.

In 1039 Harthacnut sailed with ten ships to join his mother, Emma, in Bruges. He assembled an invasion fleet of 62 ships, but they proved unnecessary as Harold died the following March. Harthacnut received envoys from England offering him the kingdom and he landed at Sandwich on 17 June 1040.

Harthacnut’s reign was a period of very high taxation, mainly to pay for his standing fleet of 32 ships. He could also be ruthless when angered. When two housecarls collecting taxes in Worcester were killed, Harthacnut ordered the burning of the city and a slaughter of its inhabitants. Most of the people escaped but the city was looted and destroyed.

In 1041 Harthacnut sent for his half-brother, Edward, and named him as heir. Although he was not much older than 20, he may have already been ill at this point. Harthacnut collapsed and died on 8 June 1042 after drinking at a wedding feast in Lambeth. He was buried next to his father in the Old Minster at Winchester and Edward succeeded to the kingdom.

Further Reading

Kings and Queens of England: Early Saxons (924-1016)

Kings and Queens of England: Edward the Confessor (1042-1066)

Kings and Queens of England: Article Index

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