The Middle Ages is the term used to describe the time period in European history beginning with the collapse of the Roman Empire and ending with the beginning of the Renaissance.    Cities became divisive, merchants lost the economic advantages of safe environments for trade, and developments in learning suffered from the loss of a unified Roman Empire. The Church remained a powerful institution at the end of the Roman Empire.  It was the constant unifying force between the many small kingdoms that appeared after the collapse. The Church preserved many ruins of the ancient world and became a strong center of learning during this time.   The people of the Middle Ages had a rich culture, strong economic advancements and many political achievements that paved the way for the ideas that led to the beginning of the Renaissance.

“The Middle Ages is the period in European history that lasted from about 350 to about 1450” (“Middle Ages Introduction,” par. 1).  Due to this lengthy period of time, it has been further defined into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.  Each period has its own distinct characteristics that mark this period in history.  The Early, High, and Late Middle Ages had different achievements: cultural, economic, and political.

The Early Middle Ages began around 350 A.D. with the gradual fall of Rome.  Remnants of the empire can be seen throughout the early middle ages until at least 1000 A.D.  “Most of the Old Rome magnificence remained – the great stone walls, temples, baths, aqueducts, theatres, and mansions” (Bishop 9).  At this time Europe consisted of a large region divided into smaller culturally, economically, and politically diverse units.  Many of these units preserved Roman forms, language, and government. 

Europeans were diverse during the Early Middle Ages.  Europe was an area of many different ethnicities but Christianity was a strong unifier.   The Church gained secular authority.    Church leaders such as bishops and archbishops sat on the king’s council and  played leading roles in government. Bishops, who were often wealthy and came from noble families, ruled over groups of parishes called diocese. Parish priests, on the other hand, came from humbler backgrounds and often had little education. The village priest tended to the sick and indigent and, if he was able, taught Latin and the Bible to the youth of the village. (“Religion,” par. 1)

It was the Christian world view that brought the people together and developed their single language of Latin (“Religion,” par. 1).  It also served as the unifying cultural influence by preserving the art of writing and using a network of bishops to centralize learning. The Early period brought back the wisdom of Roman writers and culture.   The result was the creation of a Christian culture in an economically diverse region.

The economic achievements during the Early Middle Ages can be characterized by the successes of the Byzantine Empire.  Their conquests in the south and east brought wealth to Europe.  They also relied on trade and land acquisition to help their economy.  The economy was based on agriculture and the feudal system.

Feudalism is an economic and social system.  “During the period of history known as the Middle Ages, feudalism was the law of the land.  It was the basis by which the upper nobility class maintained control over the lower classes” (“The Feudal,” par. 1).  Under feudalism, classes in society were hierarchically divided based on their position in the economy.  The system produced a large number of self-sufficient feudal units.  These units were made up of a lord and his vassals.  These feudal lords were often battling during the early middle ages. The lords’ armies were made up of peasants.  The peasants battled to win land for their lords.  “The peasant aged rapidly and died young.  His skin was hard and leathery, having been dried by exposure to all weathers and cured like ham in the smoke of his home” (Bishop 223).  The majority of the people lived the existence of a peasant. 

The pyramid of power which was the Feudal system ran to a strict ‘pecking’ order - during the Medieval period of the Middle Ages everyone knew their place. The order of rank and precedence in the Medieval Feudal System was as follows: The King, Nobles, Knights, Archbishop, Freemen, Yeomen, Servants, and Peasants /         Serfs / Villeins. (Alchin “Middle Ages Feudalism,” par. 6)

They reconciled with their belief that they had to work hard to survive.  They also believed that they had no authority when it came to politics.

The establishment of local governments was a political achievement in the Early Middle Ages.  Although the form of government varied from town to town, there were many similarities.  “At the head was a larger or smaller number of consuls, who held administrative, judicial, and military powers.  They were assisted by a council of leading citizens.  Usually there was also a general assembly of the members of the community.  But each city had its own laws and customs” (Munro 289).  Many cities ran successful governments.  Their future success is seen in the High Middle Ages.

The High Middle Ages began in 1050 A.D.  This was a period of cultural, economic and political expansion.  It can be characterized as an expanding culture and intellectual renewal that lasted from 1050 to 1300 A.D.  The rise of towns that were self-governing within their territories marked a beginning for re-urbanization during this period.  “Men built cities, castles and cathedrals, created wealth, wrote poems, and fought in crusades” (Bishop 42).  It was also a period of rapid growth in population and reformation of the church.

Much of society during the Middle Ages reflected on Christianity as the most prominent feature of their culture.  It influenced their ethics, morals, and everyday life.  Church reform began in the nine hundreds.   The Pope became the leader of the whole Church through a powerful administration in Rome.  The church demanded that there could not be any political interference in church matters including picking bishops or nominating the pope.  It was seen as an important achievement in the culture of the church.  It led to the encouragement of thinking and questioning ideas.  “In the High Middle Ages literate and self-consciously moral laymen demanded higher standards of morality from members of the clergy” (Cantor 52).

There were huge achievements in the culture of learning during the High Middle Ages.  Towns and cities began to appear throughout Europe.  Universities were established in these European cities.  These universities introduced the creation of the seven subject curriculum and literacy increased.  Aristotle studied during this time.  His intellect influenced many scholars of this period.  “The works of Aristotle led scholars to the study of dialectic, which is both a subject matter and a scholastic method” (Bishop246).  Roman numerals were replaced with Hindu-Arabic numerals.  “This system was much easier to use than the cumbersome system of Roman numerals that had been traditional throughout Europe for centuries” (Ellis 222).  Learning did not only occur in the classroom.   Many peasants learned to use a new, heavy plow that dug deeper furrows and increased crop production.  “With their heavy, horse-drawn plows peasants were able to reap greater harvests; using the three field system, they raised more varieties of crops” (Rosenwein 171).   New inventions also led to many economic achievements in the High Middle Ages.

A major economic achievement during the High Middle Ages was the expansion of trade.  Trade expanded because travel became less dangerous.  Fairs became popular.   Foreign merchants and traders came together to buy and sell items and exchange money.   “During the fairs the counts guaranteed the merchants protection, and the church suspended regulations against usury, imposing maximum rates of interest.  There was a twelve day cloth fair, an eight day leather, hide, and fur fair, as well as fairs for exchange of other products” (Bishop 186).  Urban development in northern and Western Europe increased dramatically.  The growth gave more money to monarchs and feudal lords through taxes. This period saw the beginning of the development of Italian coastal cities organized by traders to trade their goods.

Although there were many economic achievements, feudalism continued during this period. The feudal society was constructed for one reason: security. The nobles wanted the security of maintaining control over their far-reaching kingdoms, so they were forced to delegate power to local control. The peasants wanted security from marauders and barbarians from neighboring lands. They also wanted security from invading armies. (“The Feudal Structure of the Medieval World,” par. 4)

Many European kings became more powerful by making themselves lords over their vassals.  “As the supreme lord of every fief in England by the right of conquest, he was able to work out a careful scheme of feudalization that centered in the king as the liege lord of every knight in the realm” (Cantor 281).  This made it easier to control their lands.  It also made it easier to raise armies.  This absolute power led to the political reformation of the High Middle Ages.

Europe was ruled by many single rulers with absolute power until 1215 in England when nobles forced King John to sign the Magna Carta.  “Abuses by King John caused a revolt by nobles who compelled him to execute this recognition of rights for both noblemen and ordinary Englishmen.  It established the principle that no one, including the king or a lawmaker, is above the law” (Troutman, par. 1).   It stated that all free men in England have rights.  These rights must be respected by the king.   In 1215 free men meant only the barons, their vassals, and a few townspeople.  Over time the Magna Carta became a declaration of liberty for all Englishmen.  It allowed local governments to prosper.

“The Late Middle Ages, which lasted from about 1300 to about 1450, had many severe crises.  Europeans were subjected to famine, disease, and disastrous military conflicts.  Yet it was also a period of enormous vitality and advancement in art, literature, and thought” (“Middle Ages,” par. 1).  Warfare, and peasant uprising led to social unrest and the unity of the Catholic Church was hurt by the Great Schism.  The Great Schism had a long term negative effect on the Church: 

In 1378 the papal court was based in Rome and an Italian was elected pope as Pope Urban VI. The cardinals in the French interest refused to accept him, declared his election void, and named Clement VII as pope. Clement withdrew to Avignon, whilst Urban remained in Rome. Western Christendom could not decide which one to obey. Some countries declared for Urban, while other countries accepted Clement.  The spectacle of two rival popes, each holding himself out as the only true successor of St. Peter, continued for about forty years and injured the Papacy more than anything else that had happened to it. (“The Great Schism,” par.2)

The Great Schism proved to be divisive to the church.  Many broke away and began new churches.  It was a serious crisis.

Although Europeans were faced with these crises, it was also a period of cultural achievements in thought, art, and literature.  It was a time of great progress within the arts and sciences.   There was a new interest in ancient texts and classical ideas.  Culturally, Europeans were opening their minds to new ideas and discoveries.  Unfortunately, the culture of the Catholic Church was faced with the Great Schism and papacy began to decline.  “The Church suffered from a dwindling in spirituality and an increase in worldliness or, to put it baldly, in official greed” (Bishop 174).

Black Death, famine, plague and war all took an effect on the economy.  A more dramatic and direct factor in the economic depression was the Black Death.  The plague was much more severe in the cities than in the countryside but its psychological impact penetrated all areas of society.  No one- peasant or aristocrat – was safe from the disease, and once it was contracted, a horrible and painful death was almost certain. (Cantor 482) 

Starvation also became a serious problem in Europe.  In cities and rural areas food supplies were low and people starved and died.  The sudden decrease in population had an interesting effect on the economy: 

Because the plague destroyed people and not possessions, the drop in population was accompanied by a corresponding increase in per capita wealth. A new type of consumer, who preferred variety and luxury, began to appear in both the towns and the countryside. People who were unsure if they would be alive the next day wanted to spend their money on fine foods and luxuries. Many lords and wealthy merchants built churches and commissioned religious art, partly in thanks for being spared the horrors of the Black Death. Some historians suggest that the Renaissance was financed by people who invested in culture in hard times. (“Middle Ages,” par. 5)

Politically, the Late Middle Ages was a time of change.  As wealth became more available, the citizens expected more accountability.  The end of the Middle Ages set the tone for political change during the Renaissance.  “As Europe grew stronger over the next few centuries, it would take a more prominent role on the global stage” (Ellis 229).

Although the Middle Ages have been subdivided into the Early, High and Late Middle Ages, there is not an exact beginning or clear ending to this one thousand year span in history.  The era was marked with cultural, economic and political achievements. It saw the growth of societies, the Church, cities, art, literature, and education.  It also was a time of conquest, plague and war.  “The Middle Ages is an unfortunate term.  It was not invented until the age was long past.  The dwellers in the middle ages would not have recognized it.  They did not know that they were living in the middle; they thought, quite rightly, that they were time’s latest achievement” (Bishop 7).         

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Ellis, Elisabeth Gaynor, Anthony Esler, and Burton F. Beers. World History : Connections to Today. New York: Prentice Hall P, 2005.

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Munro, Dana C.  The Middle Ages.  New York: The Century Co., 1924.

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Rosenwein, Barbara H. A Short History of the Middle Ages. New York: Broadview P, 2004.

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Troutman, Nancy.  “Magna Carta.”  29 September 2008.

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