Logging’s Effects on a Forest

hey meeaaaaaaaaan, like we should save the trees maaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaan,cause like they’re groooooooooooooooooovy

i believe the enviroment is great and we should look after it more otherwise we wont have any trees left to use. TREEHUGGERH8TER

I believe that all logging should be against the law.

Do you have a reason why logging causes forest fires? I could say that eating shrimp makes houses burn down, but if i don’t have any supporting evidence, my claim sounds stupid.

Do these scientists have names?

Doing a final year project on the effects of logging on the environment and it is pathetic to know the current rate at which the forest is being destroyed!! Afforestation should however be an effective practice to curb such a menace.

Deforestation is messed up dude. wassup with that? LOLZ IM HIGH OFF GEOGRAPHY

i. like. to. eat. lots. of. PIE.

i like potatoes!Lick me

and made it into a discipline for later generations. Most of the hadith scholars, who preserved traditions of the Prophet for the Muslims also were Persians, or Persian in language and breeding because the discipline was widely cultivated in Iraq and regions beyond. Furthermore, all the great jurists were Persians, as is well-known. The same applies to speculative theologians and to most of the Qu’ran commentators. Only the Persians engaged in the task of preserving knowledge and writing systematic scholarly works. Thus the truth of the statement of the Prophet becomes apparent, If learning were suspended at the highest parts of heaven the Persians would attain it… This situation continued in the cities as long as the Persians and Persian countries, the ‘Iraq, Khurasan, and Transoxiana, retained their sedentary culture. ”

One of the main developments after the advent of Islam in Iran was the rise of the new Persian language, as an important Indo-European language. The New Persian language, was an evolution of Middle Persian which in turn was derived from Old Persian. New Persian absorbed a considerable amount of Arabic vocabulary[80][81] during this era, although the Arabic vocabulary that was Persianized[82] often took a different meaning than the Arabic origin. In terms of contribution to the Arabic language, Iranians like Sibawayhi[83] pioneered writing books of Grammer of the Arabic language.

Culturally, Iranians preserved their language, while they used the Arabic for scientific and philosophical discourses;[84] this enabled them to reach a world-wide audience for the first time.[84] After the 10th century, Persian, written in the modified Perso-Arabic script alongside Arabic, was used for scientific, philosophical, historical, mathematic, musical and medical works as important Iranian writers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Avicenna, Gurgani, Naser Khusraw, Biruni, Abdul Qadir Maraghi made contributions to Persian scientific writing.

During this era, Iranians continued the cultural and scientific enterprises set-up by the Sassanids on a much larger scale.[85] The blossoming Persian literature, philosophy, medicine and art became major elements in the forming Muslim civilization. The Islamic Golden Age which is characterized by developments in science, owed, to a large extent, its importance to vital contributions made by Iranians.[86] The Islamic Golden Age reached its peak in the 10-11th centuries, during which Persia was the main theatre of scientific activity.[85] The Persian influence of this period relied heavily upon the achievements of the Sassanids, and the weight of this influence has lead the Muslim world to accept Islamic civilization as the Perso-Islamic civilization.[87]

Even in development of Arabic scientific prose itself which differs in style from that of the Quran, Persian scholars like Ibn al-Muqaffa had a major role. Indeed, the class of clerks and civil administrators that was responsible for the cultivation of sciences in the early Islamic centuries consisted mostly of Persians.[88] The contributions of Iranians to the Arabic language is however not limited to scientific prose, but also in Arabic poetry. The contributions by Iranians are characterised as “the lively and graceful fancy, elegance of diction, depth and tenderness of feeling and a rich store of ideas”.[89]

Iranian philosophy after the Islamic conquest, is characterized by different interactions with the Old Iranian philosophy, the Greek philosophy and with the development of Islamic philosophy. The Illumination School and the Transcendent Philosophy are regarded as two of the main philosophical traditions of this era in Persia. These movements continued well into the 11th century, during which the Nizamiyya university was founded and hundreds of Iranian scholars and scientists vastly contributed to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the rise of European sciences during the Renaissance.[90]

Early modern era (1501–1921)
Main articles: Safavid Empire, Afsharid Empire, Zand Empire, and Qajar Dynasty
See also: Russo-Persian Wars, Anglo-Persian War, Turko-Persian War, and Iranian Constitutional Revolution

Sattar Khan was a key figure in the Iranian Constitutional Revolution
Shah Ismail I, the founder of the Safavid Dynasty (1501 to 1736)Iran’s first encompassing Shi’a Islamic state was established under the Safavid Dynasty (1501–1722) by Shah Ismail I. The Safavid Dynasty soon became a major political power and promoted the flow of bilateral state contacts. The Safavid peak was during the rule of Shah Abbas The Great.[20] The Safavid Dynasty frequently warred with the Ottoman Empire, Uzbek tribes and the Portuguese Empire. The Safavids moved their capital from Tabriz to Qazvin and then to Isfahan, where their patronage for the arts propelled Iran into one of its most aesthetically productive eras. Under their rule, the state became highly centralized, the first attempts to modernize the military were made, and even a distinct style of architecture developed. In 1722 Afghan rebels defeated Shah Sultan Hossein and ended the Safavid Dynasty, but in 1735, Nader Shah successfully drove out the Afghan rebels from Isfahan and established the Afsharid Dynasty. He then staged an incursion into India in 1738, securing the Peacock throne, Koh-i-Noor, and Darya-ye Noor among other royal treasures. His rule did not last long, however, as he was assassinated in 1747. The Mashhad based Afshar Dynasty was succeeded by the Zand dynasty in 1750, founded by Karim Khan, who established his capital at Shiraz. His rule brought a period of relative peace and renewed prosperity.

The Zand dynasty lasted three generations, until Aga Muhammad Khan executed Lotf Ali Khan, and founded his new capital in Tehran, marking the dawn of the Qajar Dynasty in 1794. The Qajar chancellor Amir Kabir established Iran’s first modern college system, among other modernizing reforms. Iran suffered several wars with Imperial Russia during the Qajar era, resulting in Iran losing almost half of its territories to Imperial Russia and the British Empire, via the treaties of Gulistan, Turkmenchay and Akhal. The Great Persian Famine of 1870-1871 is believed to have caused the death of 2 million persons.[91] In spite of The Great Game Iran managed to maintain her sovereignty and was never colonized, unlike neighbouring states in the region. Repeated foreign intervention and a corrupt and weakened Qajar rule led to various protests, which by the end of the Qajar period resulted in Persia’s constitutional revolution establishing the nation’s first parliament in 1906, within a constitutional monarchy.

Recent history (1921–present)
Main articles: Pahlavi Dynasty, Iranian Revolution, History of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and Iran–Iraq War
Further information: Operation Ajax

Former Iranian prime minister, Dr. Mohammad MossadeghIn 1925, Reza Khan overthrew the weakening Qajar Dynasty and became Shah. Reza Shah initiated industrialization, railroad construction, and the establishment of a national education system. Reza Shah sought to balance Russian and British influence, but when World War II started, his nascent ties to Germany alarmed Britain and Russia. In 1941, Britain and the USSR invaded Iran to use Iranian railroad capacity during World War II. The Shah was forced to abdicate in favour of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.

Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and Queen Farah about to depart after a visit to the United StatesIn 1951 Dr. Mohammed Mossadegh was elected prime minister. As prime minister, Mossadegh became enormously popular in Iran after he nationalized Iran’s oil reserves. In response, Britain embargoed Iranian oil and, amidst Cold War fears, invited the United States to join in a plot to depose Mossadegh, and in 1953 President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorized Operation Ajax. The operation was successful, and Mossadegh was arrested on 19 August 1953. After Operation Ajax, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi’s rule became increasingly autocratic. With American support, the Shah was able to rapidly modernize Iranian infrastructure, but he simultaneously crushed all forms of political opposition with his intelligence agency, SAVAK. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini became an active critic of the Shah’s White Revolution and publicly denounced the government. Khomeini was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964 Khomeini publicly criticized the United States government. The Shah was persuaded to send him into exile by General Hassan Pakravan. Khomeini was sent first to Turkey, then to Iraq and finally to France. While in exile, he continued to denounce the Shah.

The Iranian Revolution, also known as the Islamic Revolution,[92][93][94] began in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations against the Shah.[95] After strikes and demonstrations paralysed the country and its economy, the Shah fled the country in January 1979 and Ayatollah Khomeini returned from exile to Tehran. The Pahlavi Dynasty collapsed ten days later, on 11 February, when Iran’s military declared itself “neutral” after guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on 1 April 1979 when Iranians overwhelmingly approved a national referendum to make it so.[21][22] In December 1979, the country approved a theocratic constitution, whereby Khomeini became Supreme Leader of the country. The speed and success of the revolution surprised many throughout the world,[96] as it had not been precipitated by a military defeat, a financial crisis, or a peasant rebellion.[97] Although both nationalists and Marxists joined with Islamic traditionalists to overthrow the Shah, tens of thousands were killed and executed by the Islamic regime afterward, the revolution ultimately resulted in an Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.[98]

Arrival of Ayatollah Khomeini on 1 February 1979 from FranceIran’s relationship with the United States deteriorated rapidly during the revolution. On 4 November 1979, a group of Iranian students seized US embassy personnel, labelling the embassy a “den of spies”.[99] They accused its personnel of being CIA agents plotting to overthrow the revolutionary government, as the CIA had done to Mohammad Mossadegh in 1953. While the student ringleaders had not asked for permission from Khomeini to seize the embassy, Khomeini nonetheless supported the embassy takeover after hearing of its success.[100] While most of the female and African American hostages were released within the first months,[100] the remaining fifty-two hostages were held for 444 days. Subsequently attempts by the Jimmy Carter administration to negotiate or rescue were unsuccessful. In January 1981 the hostages were set free according to the Algiers declaration.

Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein decided to take advantage of what he perceived to be disorder in the wake of the Iranian Revolution and its unpopularity with Western governments. The once-strong Iranian military had been disbanded during the revolution. Saddam sought to expand Iraq’s access to the Persian Gulf by acquiring territories that Iraq had claimed earlier from Iran during the Shah’s rule. Of chief importance to Iraq was Khuzestan which not only has a substantial Arab population, but boasted rich oil fields as well. On the unilateral behalf of the United Arab Emirates, the islands of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs became objectives as well. On 22 September 1980 the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the Iran–Iraq War.

Although Saddam Hussein’s forces made several early advances, by 1982, Iranian forces managed to push the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Khomeini sought to export his Islamic revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi’a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, “drank the cup of poison” and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations. The total Iranian casualties of the war were estimated to be anywhere between 500,000 and 1,000,000; with more than 100,000 Iranians being victims of Iraq’s chemical weapons.[101] Almost all relevant international agencies have confirmed that Saddam engaged in chemical warfare to blunt Iranian human wave attacks; these agencies unanimously confirmed that Iran never used chemical weapons during the war.[102][103][104]

Following the Iran–Iraq War President Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and his administration concentrated on a pragmatic pro-business policy of rebuilding and strengthening the economy without making any dramatic break with the ideology of the revolution. Rafsanjani served until 1997 when he was succeeded by the moderate reformist Mohammad Khatami. During his two terms as president, Khatami advocated freedom of expression, tolerance and civil society, constructive diplomatic relations with other states including EU and Asian governments, and an economic policy that supported free market and foreign investment. However, Khatami is widely regarded as having been unsuccessful in achieving his goal of making Iran more free and democratic.[105] In the 2005 presidential elections, Iran made yet another change in political direction, when conservative populist candidate Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was elected over Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani.[106]

Government and politics
Main articles: Politics and Government of Iran, Parliament of Iran, President of Iran, Assembly of Experts, Supreme Leader of Iran, Expediency Discernment Council, Judicial system of Iran, Council of Guardians, and City and Village Councils of Iran
The political system of the Islamic Republic is based on the 1979 Constitution. The system comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. The Supreme Leader of Iran is responsible for delineation and supervision of the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran.[107] The Supreme Leader is Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations; and has sole power to declare war or peace.[107] The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces and six of the twelve members of the Council of Guardians are appointed by the Supreme Leader.[107] The Assembly of Experts elects and dismisses the Supreme Leader on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.[108] The Assembly of Experts is responsible for supervising the Supreme Leader in the performance of legal duties.

After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the President of Iran as the highest state authority.[107][109] The President is elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years and can only be re-elected for one term.[109] Presidential candidates must be approved by the Council of Guardians prior to running in order to ensure their allegiance to the ideals of the Islamic revolution.[110] The President is responsible for the implementation of the Constitution and for the exercise of executive powers, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters.[107] The President appoints and supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature.[111] Eight Vice-Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty two ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature.[112] Unlike many other states, the executive branch in Iran does not control the armed forces. Although the President appoints the Ministers of Intelligence and Defense, it is customary for the President to obtain explicit approval from the Supreme Leader for these two ministers before presenting them to the legislature for a vote of confidence. Iran’s current president, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, was elected in a run-off poll in the 2005 presidential elections. His term expires in 2009.[113]

Ali Khamenei, Supreme Leader of IranAs of 2008, the Legislature of Iran (also known as the Majlis of Iran) is a unicameral body.[114] Before the Iranian Revolution, the legislature was bicameral, but the upper house was removed under the new constitution. The Majlis of Iran comprises 290 members elected for four-year terms.[114] The Majlis drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All Majlis candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Council of Guardians.[115] The Council of Guardians comprises twelve jurists including six appointed by the Supreme Leader. The others are elected by the Parliament from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the Judiciary.[109][116] The Council interprets the constitution and may veto Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or Sharia (Islamic law), it is referred back to Parliament for revision.[109] In a controversial exercise of its authority, the Council has drawn upon a narrow interpretation of Iran’s constitution to veto parliamentary candidates. The Expediency Council has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.[117]

Human rights activist Shirin Ebadi, Nobel Peace Prize laureateThe Supreme Leader appoints the head of Iran’s Judiciary, who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor.[118] There are several types of courts including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and “revolutionary courts” which deal with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed.[118] The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving lay people. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court’s rulings are final and cannot be appealed.[118]

The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 “virtuous and learned” clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms. As with the presidential and parliamentary elections, the Council of Guardians determines candidates’ eligibility.[118] The Assembly elects the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time.[118] As all of their meetings and notes are strictly confidential, the Assembly has never been publicly known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader’s decisions.[118]

Local City Councils are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran. According to article seven of Iran’s Constitution, these local councils together with the Parliament are “decision-making and administrative organs of the State”. This section of the constitution was not implemented until 1999 when the first local council elections were held across the country. Councils have many different responsibilities including electing mayors, supervising the activities of municipalities; studying, planning, co-ordinating and implementing of social, cultural, educational, health, economic, and welfare requirements of their constituencies.

Foreign relations and military
Main articles: Foreign relations of Iran, Military of Iran, and Iranian defense industry
See also: Military history of Iran and List of military equipment manufactured in Iran

One of Iran’s three SSK Kilo class submarinesIran’s foreign relations are based on two strategic principles: eliminating outside influences in the region and pursuing extensive diplomatic contacts with developing and non-aligned countries. Iran maintains diplomatic relations with almost every member of the United Nations, except for Israel, which Iran does not recognize, and the United States since the Iranian Revolution.[119] Since 2005, Iran’s Nuclear Program has become the subject of contention with the West because of the Western suspicions that Iran could divert the civilian Nuclear technology to a weapons program. This has led the UN Security Council to impose sanctions against Iran on select companies linked to this program, thus furthering its economic isolation on the international scene.

The Islamic Republic of Iran has two types of armed forces: the regular forces Islamic Republic of Iran Army, Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, Islamic Republic of Iran Navy and the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC), totalling about 545,000 active troops. Iran also has around 350,000 Reserve Force totaling around 900,000 trained troops.[120] Iran has not invaded any country over the past two centuries.[121] Iran has a paramilitary, volunteer militia force within the IRGC, called the Basij, which includes about 90,000 full-time, active-duty uniformed members. Up to 11 million men and women are members of the Basij who could potentially be called up for service; GlobalSecurity.org estimates Iran could mobilize “up to one million men”. This would be among the largest troop mobilizations in the world.[122] In 2005, Iran’s military spending represented 3.3% of the GDP or $91 per capita, the lowest figure of the Persian Gulf nations.[123] Iran’s military doctrine is based on deterrence.[124]

Since the Iranian revolution, to overcome foreign embargo, Iran has developed its own military industry, produced its own tanks, armored personnel carriers, guided missiles, submarines, military vessels, radar systems, helicopters and fighter planes.[125][126] In recent years, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as the Hoot, Kowsar, Zelzal, Fateh-110, Shahab-3 and Sajjil missiles, and a variety of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).[127] The Fajr-3 (MIRV) is currently Iran’s most advanced ballistic missile, it is a liquid fuel missile with an undisclosed range which was developed and produced domestically.

Economy
Main article: Economy of Iran
See also: Next Eleven, Central Bank of Iran, Tehran Stock Exchange, Transport in Iran, Communications in Iran, Construction in Iran, Privatization in Iran, Foreign Direct Investment in Iran, Tourism in Iran, and Economic Cooperation Organization

Tehran is the largest city in the Middle East and is the most populated city in Southwest AsiaIran’s economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures.[128] Its economic infrastructure has been improving steadily over the past two decades but continues to be affected by inflation and unemployment.[129] In the early 21st century the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture. In 2006, about 45% of the government’s budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31% came from taxes and fees.[130] Government spending contributed to an average annual inflation rate of 14% in the period 2000–2004. Iran has earned $70 billion in foreign exchange reserves mostly from crude oil exports (80% as of 2007).[131] In 2007, the GDP was estimated at $206 billion ($852 billion at PPP), or $3,160 per capita ($12,300 at PPP).[30] Iran’s official annual growth rate was at 6% (2008).[132] Because of these figures and the country’s diversified but small industrial base, the United Nations classifies Iran’s economy as semi-developed.[133]

Close to 1.8% of national employment is generated in the tourism sector which is slated to increase to 10% in the next five years.[134] About 1,659,000 foreign tourists visited Iran in 2004; most came from Asian countries, including the republics of Central Asia, while a small share came from the countries of the European Union and North America. Iran currently ranks 89th in tourist income, but is rated among the 10 most touristic countries in the world.[135] Weak advertising, unstable regional conditions, a poor public image in some parts of the world, and absence of efficient planning schemes in the tourism sector have all hindered the growth of tourism.

The administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and indicated that it will diversify Iran’s oil-reliant economy. Iran has also developed a biotechnology, nanotechnology, and pharmaceuticals industry.[136] The strong oil market since 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran’s timely debt service payments. Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, mostly due to large-scale state subsidies, that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline, totaling more than $84 billion in 2008 for the energy sector alone.[137][138]

The authorities so as the private sector have put in the past 15 years an emphasis on the local production of domestic-consumption oriented goods such as home appliances, cars, agricultural products, pharmaceutical, etc. Today, Iran possesses a good manufacturing industry, despite restrictions imposed by foreign countries. However, nationalized industries such as the bonyads have often been managed badly, making them ineffective and uncompetitive with years. Currently, the government is trying to privatize these industries, and, despite successes, there are still several problems to be overcome, such as the lagging corruption in the public sector (and, therefore, nationalized industries) and lack of competitiveness.

Globally, Iran has leading manufacture industry in the fields of car-manufacture and transportations, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology, power and petrochemicals.[139]

Energy
Main articles: Energy in Iran, Ministry of Petroleum of Iran, Iranian Oil Bourse, and Nuclear program of Iran

Iran holds 10% of the world’s proven oil reserves and 15% of its gas. It is OPEC’s second largest exporter and the world’s fourth oil producer.Iran ranks second in the world in natural gas reserves and also second in oil reserves.[140] It is OPEC’s 2nd largest oil exporter. In 2005, Iran spent $4 billion on fuel imports, because of contraband and inefficient domestic use.[141] Oil industry output averaged 4 million barrels per day (640,000 m³/d) in 2005, compared with the peak of six million barrels per day reached in 1974. In the early 2000s, industry infrastructure was increasingly inefficient because of technological lags. Few exploratory wells were drilled in 2005.

In 2004, a large share of Iran’s natural gas reserves were untapped. The addition of new hydroelectric stations and the streamlining of conventional coal and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33,000 megawatts. Of that amount, about 75% was based on natural gas, 18% on oil, and 7% on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first wind-powered and geothermal plants, and the first solar thermal plant is to come online in 2009. Demographic trends and intensified industrialization have caused electric power demand to grow by 8% per year. The government’s goal of 53,000 megawatts of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants and by adding hydroelectric, and nuclear power generating capacity. Iran’s first nuclear power plant at Bushehr is set to go online by mid-2009.[142][143]

Demography
Main articles: Demography of Iran, Iranian peoples, Religion in Iran, Health care in Iran, and Iranian citizens abroad

MazandaraniPersianKurdKurdGuilakLurBaloochAzeriTurkmenQashqaiUninhabitedIranian ArabIranian
ArabPashtunTalyshIran is a diverse country consisting of people of many religions and ethnic backgrounds cemented by the Persian culture. The majority of the population speaks the Persian language, which is also the official language of the country, as well as other Iranian languages or dialects. Turkic languages and dialects (most importantly Azeri) are spoken in different areas in Iran. Additionally, Arabic is spoken in the southwestern parts of the country.

The main ethnic groups are Persians (51%), Azeris (24%), Gilaki and Mazandarani (8%), Kurds (7%), Arabs (3%), Baluchi (2%), Lurs (2%), Turkmens (2%), Laks, Qashqai, Armenians, Persian Jews, Georgians, Assyrians, Circassians, Tats, Mandaeans, Gypsies, Brahuis, Hazara, Kazakhs and others (1%).[30]

Iran’s population increased dramatically during the latter half of the 20th century, reaching about 72 million by 2008.[144] In recent years, however, Iran’s birth rate has dropped significantly. Studies show that Iran’s rate of population growth will continue to slow until it stabilizes above 90 million by 2050.[145][146] More than two-thirds of the population is under the age of 30, and the literacy rate is 82%.[30] Women today compose more than half of the incoming classes for universities around the country and increasingly continue to play pivotal roles in society.

Iran hosts one of the largest refugee populations in the world, with more than one million refugees, mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq. Since 2006, Iranian officials have been working with the UNHCR and Afghan officials for their repatriation.[147] According to estimates, between two and three million Iranian citizens have emigrated to other countries, mostly since the Iranian Revolution in 1979.[148]

Population of IranReligion in Iran is dominated by the Twelver Shi’a branch of Islam, which is the official state religion and to which about 89% of Iranians belong. About 9% of Iranians belong to the Sunni branch of Islam, mainly Kurds and Iran’s Balochi Sunni. The remaining 2% are non-Muslim religious minorities, including Bahá’ís, Mandeans, Hindus, Yezidis, Yarsanis, Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians.[30] The latter three minority religions are officially recognized and protected, and have reserved seats in the Majlis (Parliament). However the Bahá’í Faith, Iran’s largest religious minority[149], is not officially recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran. Since the 1979 revolution the persecution of Bahá’ís has increased with executions, the denial of civil rights and liberties, and the denial of access to higher education and employment.[150][151]

According to the Iranian Constitution, the government is required to provide every citizen of the country with access to social security that covers retirement, unemployment, old age, disability, accidents, calamities, health and medical treatment and care services. This is covered by public revenues and income derived from public contributions. The World Health Organization in the last report on health systems ranks Iran’s performance on health level 58th, and its overall health system performance 93rd among the world’s nations.[152]

Culture
Main article: Culture of Iran
See also: Media of Iran, Cinema of Iran, and Iranian cuisine

City Theater of Tehran, the largest Theater auditorium in the Middle East
Maqbaratoshoara, tomb of the poets in TabrizThe Culture of Iran is a mix of ancient pre-Islamic culture and Islamic culture. Iranian culture probably originated in Central Asia and the Andronovo culture is strongly suggested as the predecessor of Iranian culture ca. 2000 BC. Iranian culture has long been a predominant culture of the Middle East and Central Asia, with Persian considered the language of intellectuals during much of the 2nd millennium, and the language of religion and the populace before that. The Sassanid era was an important and influential historical period in Iran as Iranian culture influenced China, India and Roman civilization considerably,[153] and so influenced as far as Western Europe and Africa.[154] This influence played a prominent role in the formation of both Asiatic and European medieval art.[155] This influence carried forward to the Islamic world. Much of what later became known as Islamic learning, such as philology, literature, jurisprudence, philosophy, medicine, architecture and the sciences were based on some of the practises taken from the Sassanid Persians to the broader Muslim world.[156][157][158]

The statue of Ferdowsi in the Ferdwosi Square of TehranAfter Islamicization of Iran Islamic rituals have penetrated in the Iranian culture. The most noticeable one of them is commemoration of Husayn ibn Ali. Every year in Day of Ashura most of Iranians, including Armenians and Zoroastrians participate in mourning for the martyrs of battle of Karbala. Daily life in modern Iran is closely interwoven with Shia Islam and the country’s art, literature, and architecture are an ever-present reminder of its deep national tradition and of a broader literary culture.[158][159] The Iranian New Year (Nowruz) is an ancient tradition celebrated on 21 March to mark the beginning of spring in Iran. It is also celebrated in Afghanistan, Republic of Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan and previously also in Georgia and Armenia. It is also celebrated by the Iraqi and Anatolian Kurds.[160] Nowrouz was nominated as one of UNESCO’s Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2004.[161]

The cuisine of Iran is diverse, with each province featuring dishes, as well as culinary traditions and styles, distinct to their regions. The main Persian cuisines are combinations of rice with meat, chicken or fish and some onion, vegetables, nuts, and herbs. Herbs are frequently used along with fruits such as plums, pomegranates, quince, prunes, apricots, and raisins. To achieve a balanced taste, characteristic flavourings such as saffron, dried limes, cinnamon, and parsley are mixed delicately and used in some special dishes. Onions and garlic are normally used in the preparation of the accompanying course, but are also served separately during meals, either in raw or pickled form. Iran is also famous for its caviar.[162] Iranian food is not spicy.

Iranian cinema has thrived in modern Iran, and many Iranian directors have garnered worldwide recognition for their work. Iranian movies have won over three hundred awards in the past twenty-five years. One of the best-known directors is Abbas Kiarostami. The media of Iran is a mixture of private and state-owned, but books and movies must be approved by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance before being released to the public. The Internet has become enormously popular among the Iranian youth. Iran is now the world’s fourth largest country of bloggers.[163]

Language and literature
Main articles: Persian language, History of the Persian language, and Persian literature
See also: Music of Iran and Persian miniature

Geographic distribution of the Modern Iranian languages: Persian (green), Pashto (purple) and Kurdish (turquoise), Lurish (red), Baloch (Yellow), as well as smaller communities of other Iranian languagesArticle 15 of the Iranian constitution states that the “Official language (of Iran)… is Persian…[and]… the use of regional and tribal languages in the press and mass media, as well as for teaching of their literature in schools, is allowed in addition to Persian.” Persian serves as a lingua franca in Iran and most publications and broadcastings are in this language. Next to Persian there are many publications and broadcastings in other relatively large languages of Iran such as Azeri, Kurdish and even in relatively smaller ones such as Arabic and Armenian. Many languages have originated from Iran, but Persian is the most used language. Persian is a tongue belonging to the Aryan or Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages. The oldest records in Old Persian date back to the Achaemenid Empire[164] and examples of Old Persian have been found in present-day Iran, Iraq, Turkey and Egypt. In the late 8th century, the Persian language was highly Arabized and written in a modified Arabic script. This caused a movement supporting the revival of Persian. An important event of this revival was the writing of the Shahname by Ferdowsi (Persian: Epic of Kings), Iran’s national epic, which is said to have been written entirely in native Persian. This gave rise to a strong reassertion of Iranian national identity, and is in part credited for the continued existence of Persian as a separate language.

“ بسی رنج بردم در این سال سی
عجم زنده کردم بدین پارسی
For thirty years, I suffered much pain and strife
with Persian I gave the Ajam verve and life ”

—Ferdowsi (935–1020)

Kelileh va Demneh Persian manuscript copy dated 1429Persian beside Arabic has been a medium for literary and scientific contributions to the Islamic world especially in Anatolia, central Asia and Indian sub-continent. Poetry is a very important part of Persian culture. Poetry is used in many classical works, whether from Persian literature, science, or metaphysics. For example about half of Avicenna’s medical writings are known to be versified. Persian literature has been considered by such thinkers as Goethe as one of the four main bodies of world literature[165]. The Persian language has produced a number of famous poets, however only a few poets as Rumi and Omar Khayyám have surfaced among western popular readership, even though the likes of Hafez, Saadi, Nezami[166], Attar, Sanai, Naser Khusraw are considered by many Iranians to be just as influential. The books of famous poets have been translated into western languages since 1634. An example of Persian poetic influence is the poem below which is widely popular:

“ بنى آدم اعضاء يک پیکرند
که در آفرينش ز يک گوهرند
چو عضوى بدرد آورد روزگارد
دگر عضوها را نماند قرار
Of one Essence is the human race
thus has Creation put the base
One Limb impacted is sufficient
For all Others to feel the Mace ”

—Saadi (1184–1283)

Art and Architecture

Naqshe Jahan square in Isfahan is the epitome of 16th century Iranian architecture.
17th century painting from Hasht-Bahesht palace, Isfahan
Blue Mosque, architectural masterpiece in Tabriz
Bazaar of TabrizMain articles: Iranian architecture and Iranian art
Greater Iran is home to one of the richest artistic traditions in world history and encompasses many disciplines, including architecture, painting, weaving, pottery, calligraphy, metalworking and stone masonry. Carpet-weaving is one of the most distinguished manifestations of Persian culture and art, and dates back to ancient Persia. Persians were among the first to use mathematics, geometry, and astronomy in architecture and also have extraordinary skills in making massive domes which can be seen frequently in the structure of bazaars and mosques. The main building types of classical Iranian architecture are the mosque and the palace. Iran, besides being home to a large number of art houses and galleries, also holds one of the largest and valuable jewel collections in the world.

Iran ranks seventh among countries in the world with the most archeological architectural ruins and attractions from antiquity as recognized by UNESCO.[167] Fifteen of UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites are creations of Iranian architecture and the mausoleum of Maussollos was identified as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.[168]

Science and Technology
Main article: Science in Iran
See also: Education in Iran and Higher education in Iran

13th century manuscript depicting an epicyclic planetary modelAncient Iranians built Qanats and Yakhchal to provide and keep water. The first windmill appeared in Iran in the 9th century.[169] Iranians contributed significantly to the current understanding of astronomy, natural science, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy. Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī is widely hailed as the father of algebra. Ethanol (alcohol) was first identified by Persian alchemists such as Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi. Throughout the Middle Ages, the natural philosophy and mathematics of the Ancient Greeks and Persians were furthered and preserved within Persia. The Academy of Gundishapur was a renowned centre of learning in the city of Gundeshapur during late antiquity and was the most important medical centre of the ancient world during the sixth and seventh centuries.[170] During this period, Persia became a centre for the manufacture of scientific instruments, retaining its reputation for quality well into the 19th century.

Iran’s first domestically made satellite (Omid) was placed into orbit in presence of President Ahmadinejad in 2009Iran strives to revive the golden age of Persian science. The country has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate followed by China.[171] Despite the limitations in funds, facilities, and international collaborations, Iranian scientists remain highly productive in several experimental fields as pharmacology, pharmaceutical chemistry, organic chemistry, and polymer chemistry. Iranian scientists are also helping construct the Compact Muon Solenoid, a detector for CERN’s Large Hadron Collider.

In the biomedical sciences, Iran’s Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics is a UNESCO chair in biology.[172] in late 2006, Iranian scientists successfully cloned a sheep by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the Rouyan research centre in Tehran.[173]

An 18th century Persian astrolabeThe Iranian nuclear program was launched in the 1950s. Iran’s current facilities includes several research reactors, a uranium mine, an almost complete commercial nuclear reactor, and uranium processing facilities that include a uranium enrichment plant. The Iranian Space Agency launched its first reconnaissance satellite named Sina-1 in 2006, and a space rocket in 2007,[174] which aimed at improving science and research for university students.[175]

Iran placed its domestically-built satellite, Omid into the orbit on its 30th anniversary of Iranian Revolution, on February 2, 2009,[176] through Safir rocket, becoming the ninth country in the world capable of both producing a satellite and sending it into space from a domestically-made launcher.[177]

Iranian scientists outside of Iran have also made some major contributions to science. In 1960, Ali Javan co-invented the first gas laser and fuzzy set theory was introduced by Lotfi Zadeh.[178] Iranian cardiologist, Tofy Mussivand invented and developed the first artificial cardiac pump, the precursor of the artificial heart. Furthering research and treatment of diabetes, HbA1c was discovered by Samuel Rahbar. Iranian physics is especially strong in string theory, with many papers being published in Iran.[179] Iranian-American string theorist Cumrun Vafa proposed the Vafa-Witten theorem together with Edward Witten.

Sports
Main article: Sport in Iran

Azadi Football Stadium
Dizin skiing resort, IranWith two thirds of Iran’s population under the age of 25, sports constitutes a highly active portion of Iran’s society, both traditional and modern. Iran hence was the birthplace of sports such as polo,[180] and Varzesh-e Pahlavani. Freestyle wrestling has been traditionally referred to as Iran’s national sport, but today, the most popular sport in Iran is football (soccer), with the national team having reached the World Cup Final Tournament three times, and having won the Asian Cup on three occasions. Iran was the first country in the Middle East to host the Asian Games. It is home to several unique skiing resorts,[181] with the Tochal resort being the world’s fifth-highest ski resort (3,730 m/12,238 ft at its highest station) situated only fifteen minutes away from Tehran. Being a mountainous country, Iran offers enthusiasts abundant challenges for hiking, rock climbing,[182] and mountain climbing.[183][184][185] Iranian women are also active in sports.

See also
Iran portal
Main article: Outline of Iran
List of Iran-related topics
Tabriz
Shiraz

References
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^ a b c d e http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/372125/Media Encyclopædia Britannica Encyclopedia Article: Media ancient region, Iran
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^ a b c d “Iran”. International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=429&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=67&pr.y=9. Retrieved on 2009-04-22.
^ OED
^ Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ايران, pronounced [dʒomhuːɾije eslɒːmije iːɾɒn]
^ http://cesww.fas.harvard.edu/ces_definition.html
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^ Persians: Masters of Empire, 1995, ISBN 0809491044, p.134, Time-life Books
^ Persians: Masters of Empire, 1995, ISBN 0809491044, p.138, Time-life Books
^ “Even the architecture of the Christian church, with its hallowed chancel seems inspired by the designs of Mithraic temples”. Abbas Milani. Lost Wisdom. 2004. Mage Publishers. p.13. ISBN 0934211906
^ a b c d Encyclopedia Iranica, “Iran in the Islamic Period (651-1980s)”, E. Yarshater. [1].
^ “Conversion: Of Iranians to Islam.” by Elton L. Daniel in Encyclopedia Iranica [2].
^ آثار الباقیه، ابوریحان بیرونی، انتشارات امیرکبیر، 1377، ص 7۵ Biruni states: “ When Qutaibah bin Moslem under the command of Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf was sent to Khwarazmia with a military expedition and conquered it for the second time, he swiftly killed whoever wrote in the Khwarazmian native language and knew of the Khwarazmian heritage, history, and culture. He then killed all their Zoroastrian priests and burned and wasted their books, until gradually the illiterate only remained, who knew nothing of writing, and hence the regions history was mostly forgotten. ”

^ “Ṣaffārid Dynasty.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15 Mar. 2009 .
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^ Bosworth C. E., Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 4, p. 90.
^ C.E. Bosworth, “Ajam” in Encyclopedia Iranica: But by the 3rd/9th century, the non-Arabs, and above all the Persians, were asserting their social and cultural equality (taswīa) with the Arabs, if not their superiority (tafżīl) over them (a process seen in the literary movement of the Šoʿūbīya). In any case, there was always in some minds a current of admiration for the ʿAǰam as heirs of an ancient, cultured tradition of life.
^ The memoirs of Edward Teller, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory “Science and Technology Review”. July/August 1998 p. 20. Link: [4].
^ Mackey, S.. The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the soul of a nation. 1996. ISBN 0-525-94005-7. p. 69.
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^ Mackey, S.. The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the soul of a nation. 1996. ISBN 0-525-94005-7. p. 70.
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^ Mackey, S. The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the soul of a nation. 1996. ISBN 0-525-94005-7. p. 69.
^ Isfahan: Iran’s Hidden Jewel. Smithsonian Magazine.
^ Bertold Spuler. The Muslim World. Vol. I The Age of the Caliphs. Leiden. E.J. Brill. 1960 ISBN 0-685-23328-6 p. 29.
^ Q&A with John Kelly on The Great Mortality on National Review Online.
^ a b c Bernard Lewis, “Iran in History”, [5] excerpt:”Iran was indeed Islamized, but it was not Arabized. Persians remained Persians. And after an interval of silence, Iran reemerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam, eventually adding a new element even to Islam itself. Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i Ajam. It was this Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam, that was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, and of course to India. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna.”
^ Grunebaum, G. V. von. “The sources of Islamic civilization.” Islamic Society and Civilization. Eds. P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton and Bernard Lewis. Cambridge University Press, 1970. Cambridge Histories Online. Cambridge University Press. p. 501: “In some ways, the Persian components of Islamic civilization are more difficult to separate out than the Hellenic precisely because they are more fully integrated and have become effective on so many levels. In fact, the Muslim world itself, without necessarily putting this judgement in analytical terms, has long since come to accept Islamic civilization as ‘Perso-Islamic synthesis’.
^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Mehdi Amin Razavi,”The Islamic intellectual tradition in Persia”, RoutledgeCurzon; annotated edition edition (July 4, 1996). p. 157: “The appearance of the school of Ishraq meant both the guarantee of the propogation of Islamic philosophy in a form that was clearer to the heart of Islam than the earlier schools of thoughts, and also the creation of a school that was particularly close to the ethos of Persian Islam and spread wherever Persian Islamic culture was dominant.
^ The Muqaddimah By Ibn Khaldūn translated by Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood,Published by Princeton University Press, 1969.
^ “The Golden age of Persia by Richard N. Frye, Professor of Iranian, Harvard university Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1975 Professor Richard (Emeritus) was a Professor of Iranian and Middle Eastern studies at Harvard University. pp. 161-162. Quote: The remaks of Ibn Khaldun are not in dispute”. The Muqaddimah By Ibn Khaldūn translated by Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood,Published by Princeton University Press, 1969. pp. 429-430.
^ The Muqaddimah By Ibn Khaldūn translated by Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood,Published by Princeton University Press, 1969.
^ Professor. Gilbert Lazard, : The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Dari or Parsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan, Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Pashto, etc., Old Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars (the true Persian country from the historical point of view) and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran in (Lazard, Gilbert 1975, “The Rise of the New Persian Language” in Frye, R. N., The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 4, pp. 595-632, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
^ Lazard, Gilbert, “Pahlavi, Pârsi, dari: Les langues d’Iran d’apès Ibn al-Muqaffa” in R.N. Frye, “Iran and Islam. In Memoy of the late Vladimir Minorsky”, Edinburgh University Press, 1971.
^ Ann K. S. Lambton, “Persian grammar “, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge University Press 1953. Excerpt: “The Arabic words incorporated into the Persian language have become Persianized”.
^ M. G. Carter, “Sibawayhi”, Published by I.B.Tauris, 2004. p. 9: “That Sibawayhi was by origin a Persian who came or was taken to Basra seems to be beyond challenge.”
^ a b William Bayne Fisher, Richard Nelson Frye, John Andrew Boyle (1975). The Cambridge History of Iran. 4. Cambridge University Press. pp. 397-398. ISBN 0521200938.
^ a b William Bayne Fisher, et al., The Cambridge History of Iran 4 Published by Cambridge University Press, 1975, ISBN 0521200938, p. 396.
^
Robert Palter, Solomon Gandz, “Toward Modern Science : Studies in ancient and medieval science.”, Published by Noonday Press, 1961, p. 180: “The so called golden age of Islamic science owed its importance to largely to the Persian contribution.
Ehsan Yarshater, “The Persian Presence in in the Islamic World” in Richard G. Hovannisian, Georges Sabagh, “The Persian Presence in the Islamic World”, Published by Cambridge University Press, 1997. pp. 6-7: “The Golden age of Islam, as the early Abbassid period has been labeled, was distinguished by intellectual advances, literary innovations, and cultural exuberance attributable, in no small measure, to the vital participation of Persian men of letters, philosophers, theologians, grammarians, mathematicians, musicians, astronomers, geographers, and physicians”
Bernard Lewis, “Iran in History”, excerpt: “Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution.” [6].
^ The following references give comprehensive analysis and clarification of the terms “persian influence” and “perso-islamic” and the relation to Sassanids and the impact on Islamic cultures:
Marilyn Robinson Waldman, Toward a Theory of Historical Narrative: A Case Study in Perso-Islamicate Historiography, Published by Ohio State University Press, 1980, ISBN 0814202977, p. 30.
Richard M. Eaton, The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760, Published by University of California Press, 1996, ISBN 0520205073, p. 28.
Richard G. Hovannisian (ed.), The Persian Presence in the Islamic World, Published by Cambridge University Press, 1997, ISBN 0521591856. p. 78.
P. M. Holt, et al. The Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 2B, Published by Cambridge University Press, 1977, ISBN 0521291380. p. 501.
^ William Bayne Fisher, et al., The Cambridge History of Iran 4 Published by Cambridge University Press, 1975, ISBN 0521200938, p. 397.
^ Reynold Alleyne Nicholson. A Literary History of the Arabs, Published by Routledge, 1995, ISBN 0700703365, p. 290.
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Jamaica
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Jamaica (disambiguation).
Jamaica

Flag Coat of arms

Motto: “Out of many, one people”
Anthem: “Jamaica, Land We Love”
Royal anthem: “God Save the Queen”

Capital
(and largest city) Kingston
17°59′N 76°48′W / 17.983°N 76.8°W / 17.983; -76.8
Official languages English
Recognised regional languages Jamaican Patois
Ethnic groups African, Indians, Chinese, British, German, Lebanese, Syrian, other [1]
Demonym Jamaican
Government Parliamentary democracy and Constitutional monarchy
– Monarch Elizabeth II
– Governor-General Patrick Allen
– Prime Minister Bruce Golding
Independence
– from the United Kingdom 6 August 1962
Area
– Total 11,100 km2 (166th)
4,444 ) sq mi
– Water (%) 1.5
Population
– July 2009 estimate 2,825,928[1] (133th)
– Density 252/km2 (49th)
656/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate
– Total $20.958 billion[2]
– Per capita $7,766[2]
GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate
– Total $14.397 billion[2]
– Per capita $5,335[2]
Gini (2000) 37.9 (medium)
HDI (2006) ▲ 0.771 (medium) (87th)
Currency Jamaican dollar (JMD)
Time zone (UTC-5)
Drives on the left
Internet TLD .jm
Calling code +1-876
Jamaica (pronounced /dʒəˈmeɪkə/) is an island nation of the Greater Antilles, 234 kilometres (145 mi) in length and as much as 80 kilometres (50 mi) in width situated in the Caribbean Sea. It is about 145 kilometres (90 mi) south of Cuba, and 190 kilometres (120 mi) west of the island of Hispaniola, on which Haiti and the Dominican Republic are situated. Its indigenous Arawakan-speaking Taíno inhabitants named the island Xaymaca, meaning the “Land of Wood and Water”, or the “Land of Springs”.[3][dead link] Formerly a Spanish possession known as Santiago, it later became the British Crown colony of Jamaica. It is the third most populous anglophone country in North America, after the United States and Canada. It remains a Commonwealth realm.

Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Government and politics
2.1 Parishes
3 Geography
4 Demographics
4.1 Ethnic origins
4.2 Language
4.3 Emigration
5 Religion
6 Culture
6.1 National symbols
7 Sport
8 Education
9 Economy
9.1 International trade
10 Infrastructure
10.1 Transport
10.2 Energy
10.3 Communication
11 Military
12 Crime
13 See also
14 References
15 Further reading
16 External links

[edit] History
Main article: History of Jamaica
The Arawak and Taino indigenous people originating from South America settled on the island between 4000 and 1000 BC.[4] When Christopher Columbus arrived in 1494 there were over 200 villages ruled by chiefs or caciques, with the south coast of Jamaica being the most populated, especially around what is now known as Old Harbour.[5] The Tainos were still inhabiting Jamaica when the British took control of the island.[6] The Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any evidence of the Taino/Arawaks.[7]

Christopher Columbus claimed Jamaica for Spain after landing there in 1494. Columbus’ probable landing point was Dry Harbour, now called Discovery Bay. St. Ann’s Bay was the “Saint Gloria” of Columbus who first sighted Jamaica at this point. One mile west of St. Ann’s Bay is the site of the first Spanish settlement on the island, Sevilla, which was abandoned in 1554 because of numerous pirate raids.

The capital was moved to Spanish Town, now located in the parish of St. Catherine, as early as 1534. It was then called “Villa de la Vega”. Spanish Town has the oldest Cathedral in the British colonies. The Spanish were forcibly evicted by the English at Ocho Rios in St. Ann. However, it was not until 1655 that, at Tower Isle, the English took over the last Spanish fort in Jamaica. The Spaniard Don Arnoldo de Yassi kept Tower Hill (the site of Tower Isle) from the English for five years, before escaping to Cuba. The site of his departure was fittingly called “Runaway Bay”, which is also in St. Ann. The name of Montego Bay, the capital of the parish of St. James, was derived from the Spanish name manteca bahía (or Bay of Lard) for the large quantity of boar used for the lard-making industry.[8]

The English Admiral William Penn (father of William Penn of Pennsylvania) and General Robert Venables seized the island in 1655. As early as the 1670s, blacks formed a majority of the population.[9] During its first 200 years of British rule, Jamaica became one of the world’s leading sugar-exporting, slave-dependent nations, producing more than 77,000 tons of sugar annually between 1820 and 1824. After the abolition of the slave trade (but not slavery itself) in 1807,[10] the British imported Indian and Chinese workers as indentured servants to supplement the labour pool. Descendants of indentured servants of Asian and Chinese origin continue to reside in Jamaica today.

By the beginning of the 19th century, Jamaica’s heavy reliance on slavery resulted in blacks (Africans) outnumbering whites (Europeans) by a ratio of almost 20 to 1. Even though England had outlawed the importation of slaves, some were still smuggled into the colonies. The British government drew-up laws regimenting the abolition of slavery, but they also included instructions for the improvement of the slaves’ way of life. These instructions included a ban of the use of whips in the field, a ban on the flogging of women, notification that slaves were to be allowed religious instruction, a requirement that slaves be given an extra free day during the week when they could sell their produce as well as a ban of Sunday markets.

In Jamaica, however, these measures were resisted by the House of Assembly. The Assembly claimed that the slaves were content and objected to Parliament’s interference in island affairs, although many slave owners feared possible revolts. Following a series of rebellions and changing attitudes in Great Britain, the nation formally abolished slavery in 1834, with full emancipation from chattel slavery declared in 1838.

In the 1800s, the British established a number of botanical gardens. These included the Castleton Garden, set up in 1862 to replace the Bath Garden (created in 1779) which was subject to flooding. Bath Garden was the site for planting breadfruit brought to Jamaica from the Pacific by Captain William Bligh. Other gardens were the Cinchona Plantation founded in 1868 and the Hope Garden founded in 1874. In 1872, Kingston became the island’s capital.

In 1945, Sir Horace Hector Hearne became Chief Justice and Keeper of the Records in Jamaica. He headed the Supreme Court, Kingston between 1945 and 1950/1951. He then moved to Kenya where he was appointed Chief Justice.

Jamaica slowly gained increasing independence from the United Kingdom and in 1958, it became a province in the Federation of the West Indies, a federation among the British West Indies. Jamaica attained full independence by leaving the federation in 1962.

Map of JamaicaStrong economic growth, averaging about six percent per annum, marked the first ten years of independence under conservative governments which were led successively by Prime Ministers Alexander Bustamante, Donald Sangster and Hugh Shearer. The growth was fueled by strong investments in bauxite/alumina, tourism, manufacturing industry and, to a lesser extent, the agricultural sector. However, the optimism of the first decade was accompanied by a growing sense of inequality, and a sense that the benefits of growth were not being experienced by the urban poor. This, combined with the effects of a slowdown in the global economy in 1970, prompted the electorate to change the government, electing the PNP (People’s National Party) in 1972. However, despite efforts to create more socially equitable policies in education and health, Jamaica continued to lag economically, with its gross national product having fallen in 1980 to some twenty-five percent below the 1972 level. Rising foreign and local debt, accompanied by large fiscal deficits, resulted in the invitation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) financing from the United States and others, and the imposition of IMF austerity measures (with a greater than 25% interest rate per year).

Economic deterioration continued into the mid-1980s, exacerbated by a number of factors; The first and third largest alumina producers, Alpart and Alcoa, closed and there was a significant reduction in production by the second largest producer, Alcan. In addition, tourism decreased and Reynolds Jamaica Mines, Ltd. left the Jamaican industry.

[edit] Government and politics
Main article: Politics of Jamaica
Further information: Foreign relations of Jamaica

Inside the Parliament of JamaicaJamaica is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy with the monarch being represented by a Governor-General.[11] The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who officially uses the title “Queen of Jamaica” when she visits the country or performs duties overseas on Jamaica’s behalf. See Jamaican Royal Family. The Governor-General is nominated by the Prime Minister and the entire Cabinet and appointed by the monarch. All the members of the Cabinet are appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister. The monarch and the Governor-General serve largely ceremonial roles, apart from their potent reserve power to dismiss the Prime Minister or Parliament.

Jamaica’s current Constitution was drafted in 1962 by a bipartisan joint committee of the Jamaican legislature. It came into force with the Jamaica Independence Act, 1962 of the United Kingdom Parliament, which gave Jamaica political exile. This was followed by a reformation of the island’s national anthem.

The Parliament of Jamaica is bicameral, consisting of the House of Representatives (Lower House) and the Senate (Upper House). Members of the House (known as Members of Parliament or MPs) are directly elected, and the member of the House of Representatives who, in the Governor-General’s best judgment, is best able to command the confidence of a majority of the members of that House, is appointed by the Governor-General to be the Prime Minister. Senators are appointed jointly by the Prime Minister and the parliamentary Leader of the Opposition.

Embassy of Jamaica in Washington, D.C.In February 2006, Portia Simpson-Miller was elected by delegates of the ruling People’s National Party (PNP) to replace P. J. Patterson as President of the Party. At the end of March 2006 when Patterson demitted office, Simpson-Miller became the first female Prime Minister of Jamaica. Former Prime Minister Patterson had held office since the 1992 resignation of Michael Manley. Patterson was re-elected three times, the last being in 2002.

On 3 September 2007, Bruce Golding of the Jamaica Labour Party was voted in as Prime Minister-Designate after achieving a 33 – 27 seat victory over Portia Simpson-Miller and the PNP in the 2007 Jamaican general election. Portia Simpson-Miller conceded defeat on 5 September 2007.[12] On 11 September 2007, after being sworn in by Governor-General Kenneth Hall, The Hon. Bruce Golding assumed office as Prime Minister of Jamaica.

Jamaica has traditionally had a two-party system, with power often alternating between the People’s National Party and Jamaica Labour Party (JLP). However, over the past decade a new political party called the National Democratic Movement (NDM) emerged in an attempt to challenge the two-party system, though it has become largely irrelevant in this system, as it garnered only 540 votes of the over 800,000 votes cast in the 3 September elections. Jamaica is a full and participating member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM).

[edit] Parishes
Main article: Parishes of Jamaica

Jamaica is divided into 14 parishes, which are grouped into three historic counties that have no administrative relevance.

Cornwall County Middlesex County Surrey County
1 Hanover 6 Clarendon 11 Kingston
2 Saint Elizabeth 7 Manchester 12 Portland
3 Saint James 8 Saint Ann 13 Saint Andrew
4 Trelawny 9 Saint Catherine 14 Saint Thomas
5 Westmoreland 10 Saint Mary

[edit] Geography
Main article: Geography of Jamaica

Doctor’s Cave Beach Club is a popular destination in Montego Bay.
The picturesque Dunn’s River Falls in Ocho Ríos.Jamaica is the third largest island in the Caribbean. The island is home to the Blue Mountains inland and is surrounded by a narrow coastal plain. Most major towns and cities are located on the coast. Chief towns and cities include the capital Kingston, Portmore, Spanish Town, Mandeville, Ocho Ríos, Port Antonio, Negril, and Montego Bay. The Kingston Harbour is one of the largest natural harbours in the world. There are several tourist attractions scattered across the country, including Dunn’s River Falls in St. Ann, YS Falls in St. Elizabeth, the Blue Lagoon in Portland, and Port Royal, which was the site of an earthquake that helped form the island’s Palisadoes.

The climate in Jamaica is tropical, with hot and humid weather, although higher inland regions are more temperate. Some regions on the south coast, such as the Liguanea Plain and the Pedro Plains, are relatively dry rain-shadow areas. Jamaica lies in the hurricane belt of the Atlantic Ocean; as a result, the island sometimes experiences significant storm damage. Hurricanes Charlie and Gilbert hit Jamaica directly in 1951 and 1988, respectively, causing major damage and many deaths. In the 2000s, hurricanes Ivan, Dean, and Gustav also brought severe weather to the island.

[edit] Demographics
Further information: Demographics of Jamaica

[edit] Ethnic origins
According to the 2001 census, Jamaica’s population mainly consists of people of African descent, comprising 91.2% of the demographics.[1] Multiracial Jamaicans make up 6.2% of the population,[1] and “other or unknown” Jamaicans (including Indian, Chinese, British, Irish, and German Jamaicans) make up 2.6% of the population.[1] Immigration has been greatly rising from China, Haiti, Cuba, Colombia, and other Latin American countries; 20,000 Latin Americans currently reside in Jamaica. 7,000 Americans also reside in Jamaica.[13][14][15]

[edit] Language
The official language of Jamaica is English. Informally, Jamaican Patois (pronounced /pætwɑː/) is more commonly spoken by a majority of the population. Although British English or, “The Queen’s English,” is the most obvious influence on Patois, the language includes words and syntax from various African languages (namely Akan, Igbo, Wolof and Twi);[16][verification needed] other European languages (Spanish, Portuguese, and French);[citation needed] Pre-Columbian Caribbean languages (Arawakan);[citation needed] and Asian languages (Hindi, Hakka and Cantonese), evidence of historical admixture.[citation needed] In general, Patois differs from English in pronunciation, grammar, nominal orthography and syntax, having many intonations to indicate meaning and mood. The language’s characteristics include pronouncing /θ/ as [t] and /ð/ as [d], and omitting some initial consonant sounds, principally /h/. For example, the word “there” is pronounced [ˈder or deh]. A number of linguists classify Jamaican Patois as a separate language, while others consider it to be a dialect of English.

[edit] Emigration
Main article: Jamaican diaspora
Jamaicans have emigrated to other countries, especially to the United Kingdom, United States, and Canada. In the case of the United States, about 20,000 Jamaicans per year are granted permanent residence.[17]. The great number of Jamaicans living abroad has become known as the “Jamaican diaspora”. There has also been emigration of Jamaicans to Cuba.[18] The scale of emigration has been widespread and similar to other Caribbean entities such as Puerto Rico, Guyana, and Trinidad and Tobago.

Concentrations of expatriate Jamaicans are large in a number of cities in the United States, including New York City, Buffalo, the Miami metro area, Atlanta, Orlando, Tampa, Washington, D.C, Philadelphia, Hartford, Providence and Los Angeles. In Canada, the Jamaican population is centred in Toronto, and there are smaller communities in cities such as Hamilton, Montreal, Vancouver and Ottawa. In the United Kingdom, Jamaican communities exist in most large cities where they make up the larger part of the British-Caribbean community.

[edit] Religion
Christians make up the majority of the population, approximately 65 percent[1]. The Christian faith spread rapidly as British Christian abolitionists joined educated former slaves in the struggle against slavery.[citation needed] The five largest denominations in Jamaica are: Church of God, Seventh-day Adventist, Baptist, Pentecostal and Anglican.[19]

Other popular religions in Jamaica include Islam, Bahá’í Faith with perhaps 8000 Bahá’ís[20] and 21 Local Spiritual Assemblies,[21] Buddhism, and Hinduism.[22] There is also a small population of Jews, about 200, who describe themselves as Liberal-Conservative.[23] The first Jews in Jamaica trace their roots back to early 15th century Spain and Portugal.[24] Islam in Jamaica estimate a total Muslim population of 5,000[2].

[edit] Culture
Main article: Culture of Jamaica
Further information: Music of Jamaica, Cuisine of Jamaica, and Jamaican literature

Marcus Garvey, Father of the Back to Africa Movement and Jamaica’s first National Hero.
Bob Marley, the most famous reggae artist from Jamaica.The Rastafari movement was founded in Jamaica. This Back to Africa movement believes that Haile Selassie of Ethiopia was God incarnate, the returned black messiah, come to take the lost Twelve Tribes of Israel back to live with him in Holy Mount Zion in a world of perfect peace, love and harmony. Bob Marley, a convert to the faith, spread the message of Rastafari to the world. There are now estimated to be more than a million Rastafarians throughout the world. Though a small nation, Jamaica is rich in culture and has a strong global presence. The musical genres reggae, ska, mento, rocksteady, dub, and, more recently, dancehall and ragga all originated in the island’s vibrant, popular urban recording industry. Jamaica also played an important role in the development of punk rock, through reggae and ska. Reggae has also influenced American rap music, as they both share their roots as rhythmic, African styles of music. Some rappers, such as The Notorious B.I.G. and Heavy D, are of Jamaican descent. Internationally known reggae musician Bob Marley was born in Jamaica and is very respected there. Many other internationally known artists were born in Jamaica including Lee “Scratch” Perry, Peter Tosh, Bunny Wailer, Big Youth, Jimmy Cliff, Dennis Brown, Desmond Dekker, Beres Hammond, Beenie Man, Shaggy, Tami Chynn, Tessanne Chin, Grace Jones, Shabba Ranks, Supercat, Buju Banton, Sean Paul, I Wayne, Bounty Killer and many others. Famous band artist groups that came from Jamaica include Black Uhuru, Third World Band, Inner Circle, Chalice Reggae Band, Culture, Fab Five and Morgan Heritage. The genre jungle emerged from London’s Jamaican diaspora. The birth of hip-hop in New York also owed much to the city’s Jamaican community.

Ian Fleming, who lived in Jamaica, repeatedly used the island as a setting in the James Bond novels, including Live and Let Die, Doctor No, For Your Eyes Only, The Man with the Golden Gun and Octopussy. In addition, James Bond uses a Jamaica-based cover in Casino Royale. So far, the only James Bond film adaption to have been set in Jamaica is Doctor No. Filming for the fictional island of San Monique in Live and Let Die, however, took place in Jamaica.

The American film Cocktail, starring Tom Cruise, is one of the most popular films to depict Jamaica. A look at delinquent youth in Jamaica is presented in the 1970s musical crime film The Harder They Come, starring Jimmy Cliff as a frustrated (and psychopathic) reggae musician who descends into a murderous crime spree. Another popular Jamaican-based film is the 1993 comedy Cool Runnings which is loosely based on the true story of Jamaica’s first bobsled team trying to make it in the Winter Olympics.

Errol Flynn lived with his third wife Patrice Wymore in Port Antonio in the 1950s. He was responsible for developing tourism to this area, popularising raft trips down rivers on bamboo rafts.[25]

The island is famous for its Jamaican jerk spice which forms a popular part of Jamaican cuisine. Jamaica is also home to the world-renowned Red Stripe Beer and Jamaican Blue Mountain Coffee.

[edit] National symbols
National Bird — Doctor Bird (Green-and-black Streamertail, Trochilus polytmus)
National Flower — Lignum Vitae (Hibiscus elatus)
National Tree — Blue Mahoe (Guaiacum officinale)
National Fruit — Ackee
National Motto — “Out of Many, One People.” (Unity among many cultures and races.)

[edit] Sport
See also: Cricket in the West Indies
See also: History of Jamaican athletics

Usain Bolt, one of Jamaica’s most famous athletes.Jamaicans, in general, have a large interest in sports. Cricket, football (soccer), athletics and horse-racing are several popular sports. The Jamaican national cricket team competes regionally, and also provides players for the West Indies. The national football team qualified for the 1998 FIFA World Cup. Jamaican athletics have been well represented at the Olympics, World Championships and other major athletics events over the years with leading athletes obtaining medals. Usain Bolt, world record holder in the 100m for men at 9.69s, and 200m for men at 19.30s is among a rich heritage of Jamaican sprinters to compete on the world stage. They have also boasted athletes such as Delloreen Ennis-London, Veronica Campbell-Brown, Brigitte Foster-Hylton, and former 100m world record holder Asafa Powell. The Jamaica national bobsled team was once a serious contender in the Winter Olympics, beating many well-established teams.

There is a notable amount of golf in Jamaica, but it appears to be focused on the international tourism market.

In the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Usain Bolt of Jamaica won three gold medals and broke the World Records for the 100m and 200m sprint races respectively. 400m hurdler Melaine Walker, won a gold medal and broke the Olympic record time in her event. Veronica Campbell-Brown successfully defended her 200m title when she claimed gold. Shelly-Ann Fraser won gold in the women’s 100m sprint, with her team mates Kerron Stewart and Sherone Simpson coming in joint second for two silver medals. The Jamaican men’s 4 x 100m relay team consisting of Asafa Powell, Usain Bolt, Michael Frater and Nesta Carter passed the finishing line in a World Record time of 37.10 seconds. This was 0.3 seconds quicker than the previous record set by the American relay team in 1992 and 1993, the margin is equivalent to three yards. Overall, the Jamaican 2008 Olympics team finished with a rank of 13 out of 204 competing nations. The 11 medals consisted of 6 golds, 3 silvers and 2 bronze.

Chess, Pocket Pool, and Basketball are widely played in Jamaica which are supported by the Jamaica Chess Federation (JCF), the Jamaica Pocket Pool Federation (JPPF), and the Jamaica Basketball Federation (JBF). Netball is also very popular on the island, with the National Netball Team called The Sunshine Girls consistently ranking in the top five in the world. During the 1980s the island produced world class athletes in boxing as well, including Trevor Berbick and Mike McCallum.

[edit] Education
Main article: Education in Jamaica
The emancipation of the slaves heralded in the establishment of the Jamaican education system for the masses. Prior to emancipation there were few schools for educating locals. Many sent their children off to England to access quality education.

After emancipation the West Indian Commission granted a sum of money to establish Elementary Schools, now known as All Age Schools. Most of these schools were established by the churches.[26] This was the genesis of the modern Jamaican school system:

Presently the following categories of schools exist:

Early childhood – Basic, Infant and privately operated pre- school. Age cohort – 1 – 5 years.
Primary – Publicly and privately owned (Privately owned being called Preparatory Schools). Ages 5 – 10 years.
Secondary – Publicly and privately owned. Ages 10 – 18 years. The high schools in Jamaica may be either single-sex or co-educational institutions, and many schools follow the traditional English grammar school model used throughout the British West Indies.
Tertiary – Community Colleges, Teachers’ Colleges with The Mico Teachers’ College(now The MICO University College) being the oldest founded in 1836, Vocational Training Centres, Colleges and Universities – Publicly and privately owned. There are five local universities namely: The University of the West Indies (Mona Campus); the University of Technology, Jamaica formerly The College of Art Science and Technology (CAST); the Northern Caribbean University; the University College of The Caribbean and the International University of the Caribbean. Additionally, there are many community and teacher training colleges.
Education is free from the early childhood to secondary levels. There are also opportunities for those who cannot afford further education in the vocational arena through the Human Employment and Resource Training-National Training Agency (HEART Trust-NTA) programme[27] and through an extensive scholarship network for the various universities.

[edit] Economy
Main article: Economy of Jamaica
Jamaica is a mixed economy with both state enterprises and private sector businesses. Major sectors of the Jamaican economy include agriculture, mining, manufacturing, tourism, and financial and insurance services. Tourism and mining are the leading earners of foreign exchange.

Supported by multilateral financial institutions, Jamaica has, since the early 1980s, sought to implement structural reforms aimed at fostering private sector activity and increasing the role of market forces in resource allocation. Since 1991, the government has followed a programme of economic liberalization and stabilization by removing exchange controls, floating the exchange rate, cutting tariffs, stabilising the Jamaican currency, reducing inflation and removing restrictions on foreign investment. Emphasis has been placed on maintaining strict fiscal discipline, greater openness to trade and financial flows, market liberalisation and reduction in the size of government. During this period, a large share of the economy was returned to private sector ownership through divestment and privatisation programmes.

The macroeconomic stabilisation programme introduced in 1991, which focused on tight fiscal and monetary policies, has contributed to a controlled reduction in the rate of inflation. The annual inflation rate has decreased from a high of 80.2% in 1991 to 7.9% in 1998. inflation for FY1998/99 was 6.2% compared to 7.2% in the corresponding period in CUU1997/98. The Government of Jamaica remains committed to lowering inflation, with a long-term objective of bringing it in line with that of its major trading partners.

After a period of steady growth from 1985 to 1995, real GDP decreased by 1.8% and 2.4% in 1996 and 1997, respectively. The decrease in GDP in 1996 and 1997 was largely due to significant problems in the financial sector and, in 1997, a severe island-wide drought (the worst in 70 years) that drastically reduced agricultural production. In 1997, nominal GDP was approximately J$220,556.2 million (US$6,198.9 million based on the average annual exchange rate of the period).

Fishing boats and bauxite cargo ships share the waterways near Alligator Pond, JamaicaThe economy in 1997 was marked by low levels of import growth, high levels of private capital inflows and relative stability in the foreign exchange market.

Recent economic performance shows the Jamaican economy is recovering. Agricultural production, an important engine of growth increased 15.3% in third quarter of 1998 compared to the corresponding period in 1997, signaling the first positive growth rate in the sector since January 1997. Bauxite and alumina production increased 5.5% from January to December, 1998 compared to the corresponding period in 1997. January’s bauxite production recorded a 7.1% increase relative to January 1998 and continued expansion of alumina production through 2009 is planned by Alcoa.[28] Tourism, which is the largest foreign exchange earner, showed improvement as well. In the third quarter of 1998, growth in tourist arrivals accelerated with an overall increase of 8.5% in tourism earnings in 1998 when compared to the corresponding period in 1997. Jamaica’s agricultural exports are sugar, bananas, coffee, rum,and yams.

Jamaica’s the number two exporter of Bauxite in the world, falling short only to the much larger Australia.

Jamaica has a wide variety of industrial and commercial activities. The aviation industry is able to perform most routine aircraft maintenance, except for heavy structural repairs. There is a considerable amount of technical support for transport and agricultural aviation. Jamaica has a considerable amount of industrial engineering, light manufacturing, including metal fabrication, metal roofing, and furniture manufacturing. Food and beverage processing, glassware manufacturing, computer software and data processing, printing and publishing, insurance underwriting, music and recording, and advanced education activities can be found in the larger urban areas. The Jamaican construction industry is entirely self-sufficient, with professional technical standards and guidance.[29]

Since the first quarter of 2006, the economy of Jamaica has undergone a period of staunch growth. With inflation for the 2006 calendar year down to 6.0% and unemployment down to 8.9%, the nominal GDP grew by an unprecedented 2.9%.[30] An investment programme in island transportation and utility infrastructure and gains in the tourism, mining, and service sectors all contributed this figure. All projections for 2007 show an even higher potential for economic growth with all estimates over 3.0% and hampered only by urban crime and public policies.

In 2006, Jamaica became part of the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME) as one of the pioneering members.

[edit] International trade
Exports: (1999) 1,238 billion $ (Natural resources: 55.7%, Food 19.1%, Bananas 4%, Chemicals 3.6%, Machinery 2.2%). The main export countries: United States 33.4%, Canada 14.1%, United Kingdom 13.4%, Netherlands 10.2%, Norway 5.8%, France 5%, Germany 4%, and Japan 2.3%.

Imports: (1999) 2,89 billion $ (Energy 50.5%, Machinery and Equipment 7.6%, Consumer goods 33.2%). The main import countries: United States 48.1%, Trinidad and Tobago 7.8%, Japan 6.9%, France 5%, United Kingdom 3.7%, and Canada 3%.

Exports and Imports for January 2007 -

Exports: (January 2007) Total Goods Exports 166,495 (US$000) (General Merchandise Exports 93.4%, Freezone Exports 2.6%, Goods Procured in Ports 4.0%).

Imports: (January 2007) : Total Goods Import 511,015 (US$000); General Merchandise Imports 97.8%, Freezone Imports 0.3%, Goods Procured in Ports 1.8%).

[edit] Infrastructure

[edit] Transport
Further information: Transport in Jamaica
The transport infrastructure in Jamaica consists of roadways, railways and air transport, with roadways forming the backbone of the island’s internal transport system.

Roadways

Main article: Roads in Jamaica
The Jamaican road network consists of almost 13 049 miles (21,000 kilometres) of roads, of which over 9 321 miles (15,000 kilometres) is paved.[1] The Jamaican Government has, since the late 1990s and in cooperation with private investors, embarked on a campaign of infrastructural improvement projects, one of which includes the creation of a system of freeways, the first such access-controlled roadways of their kind on the island, connecting the main population centers of the island. This project has so far seen the completion of 21 miles (33 kilometres) of freeway.

Railways

Main article: Railways of Jamaica
Railways in Jamaica, as in many other countries, no longer enjoy the prominent position they once did, having been largely replaced by roadways as the primary means of transport. Of the 169 miles (272 kilometres) of railway found in Jamaica, only 35 miles (57 kilometres) remain in operation, currently used to transport bauxite.[1]

Air transport

There are two international airports in Jamaica with modern terminals, long runways, and the navigational equipment required to accommodate the large jet aircraft used in modern air travel: Norman Manley International Airport in Kingston and Sangster International Airport in the resort town of Montego Bay. Both airports are home to the country’s national airline, Air Jamaica. In addition there are local commuter airports at Tinson Pen (Kingston), Port Antonio, Ocho Ríos, and Negril which cater to internal flights only. Many other small, rural centers are served by private fields on sugar estates or bauxite mines.

Ports, shipping and lighthouses

Owing to its location in the Caribbean Sea in the shipping lane to the Panama Canal and relative proximity to large markets in North America and emerging markets in Latin America, Jamaica receives high container traffic. The container terminal at the Port of Kingston has undergone large expansion in capacity in recent years to handle growth both already realised as well as that which is projected in coming years.[31] Montego Freeport in Montego Bay also handles a variety of cargo like (though more limited than) the Port of Kingston, mainly agricultural products.

There are several other ports positioned around the island, including Port Esquivel in St. Catherine (WINDALCO), Rocky Point in Clarendon, Port Kaiser in St. Elizabeth, Port Rhoades in Discovery Bay, Reynolds Pier in Ocho Rios, and Boundbrook Port in Port Antonio.

To aid the navigation of shipping, Jamaica operates nine lighthouses. For more information see Lighthouses in Jamaica.

[edit] Energy
Jamaica depends on petroleum imports to satisfy its national energy needs.[1] Many test sites have been explored for oil, but no commercially viable quantities have been found.[32] The most convenient sources of imported oil and motor fuels (diesel, gasoline, and jet fuel) are from Mexico and Venezuela.

Jamaica’s electrical power is produced by diesel (bunker oil) generators located in Old Harbour. Other smaller power stations (most owned by the Jamaica Public Service Company – the island’s electricity provider) support the island’s electrical grid including the Hunts Bay Power Station, the Bogue Power Station, the Rockfort Power Station and small hydroelectric plants on the White River, Rio Bueno, Morant River, Black River (Maggotty) and Roaring River.[33] A wind farm, owned by the Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica, was established at Wigton, Manchester.[34]

Jamaica imports approximately 80,000 barrels of oil energy products per day,[32] including asphalt and lubrication products. Just 20% of imported fuels are used for road transportation, the rest being used by the bauxite industry, electricity generation, and aviation.

Jamaica produces enormous quantities of hydrous ethanol (5% water content), most of which appears to be consumed as beverages, and none of it used as motor fuel. Facilities exist to refine hydrous ethanol feedstock into anhydrous ethanol (0% water content), but the process appears to be uneconomic at this time and the facility remains idle.[35]

[edit] Communication
Jamaica has a fully digital telephone communication system with a mobile penetration of over 95%.[36]

The country’s three mobile operators – Cable and Wireless (marketed as LIME – Landline, Internet, Mobile and Entertainment), Digicel, and Oceanic Digital (operating as MiPhone and now known as Claro since late 2008) – have spent millions in network upgrade and expansion.Both Digicel and Oceanic Digital were granted licences in 2001 to operate mobile services in the newly liberalised telecom market that had once been the sole domain of the incumbent Cable and Wireless monopoly. Digicel opted for the more widely used GSM wireless system, while Oceanic opted for the CDMA standard. Cable and Wireless, which had begun with TDMA standard, subsequently upgraded to GSM, and currently utilises both standards on its network.

With wireless usage increasing, land lines supplied by Cable and Wireless have declined from just over half a million to roughly about three hundred thousand as of 2006.[36] In a bid to grab more market share, Cable and Wireless recently launched a new land line service called HomeFone Prepaid that would allow customers to pay for minutes they use rather than pay a set monthly fee for service, much like prepaid wireless service.

A new entrant to the Jamaican communications market, Flow Jamaica, recently laid a new submarine cable connecting Jamaica to the United States. This new cable increases the total number of submarine cables connecting Jamaica to the rest of the world to four.

Two more licences were auctioned by the Jamaican government to provide mobile services on the island, including one that was previously owned by AT&T Wireless but never utilised, and one new licence. Industry analysts[who?] argue that with a near market saturation, there is very little room for new operators.[citation needed]

[edit] Military
Main article: Military of Jamaica

Jamaican Defence ForcesThe Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) is the small but professional military force of Jamaica. The JDF is based on the British military model with organisation, training, weapons and traditions closely aligned with Commonwealth realms. Once chosen, officer candidates are sent to one of several British or Canadian basic officer courses depending on which arm of service they are selected for. Enlisted soldiers are given basic training at JDF Training Depot, Newcastle or Up Park Camp, both in St. Andrew. As with the British model, NCOs are given several levels of professional training as they rise up the ranks. Additional military schools are available for speciality training in Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom.

The JDF is directly descended from the British West Indies Regiment formed during the colonial era. The West Indies Regiment was used extensively by the British Empire in policing the empire from 1795 to 1926. Other units in the JDF heritage include the early colonial Jamaica Militia, the Kingston Infantry Volunteers of WWI and reorganised into the Jamaican Infantry Volunteers in World War II. The West Indies Regiment was reformed in 1958 as part of the West Indies Federation. The dissolution of the Federation resulted in the establishment of the JDF.

The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) comprises an infantry Regiment and Reserve Corps, an Air Wing, a Coast Guard fleet and a supporting Engineering Unit. The infantry regiment contains the 1st, 2nd and 3rd (National Reserve) battalions. The JDF Air Wing is divided into three flight units, a training unit, a support unit and the JDF Air Wing (National Reserve). The Coast Guard is divided between seagoing crews and support crews. It conducts maritime safety and maritime law enforcement as well as defence-related operations. The support battalion contains a Military Police platoon as well as vehicle, armourers and supply units. The 1st Engineer Regiment provides military engineering support to the JDF. The Headquarters JDF contains the JDF Commander, Command Staff as well as Intelligence, Judge Advocate office, Administrative and Procurement sections.

In recent years the JDF has been called on to assist the nation’s police, the Jamaica Constabulary Force (JCF) in fighting drug smuggling and a rising crime rate which includes one of the highest murder rates in the world. JDF units actively conduct armed patrols with the JCF in high-crime areas and known gang neighbourhoods. There has been vocal controversy as well as support of this JDF role. In early 2005, an Opposition leader, Edward Seaga, called for the merger of the JDF and JCF. This has not garnered support in either organisation nor among the majority of citizens.

[edit] Crime
Main article: Crime in Jamaica
See also: Prisons in Jamaica
Some areas of Jamaica, particularly cities such as Kingston, experience high levels of crime and violence.[37] Jamaica has had one of the highest murder rates in the world for many years, according to UN estimates.[38] Former Prime Minister P.J. Patterson described the situation as “a national challenge of unprecedented proportions”.[39] In 2005, Jamaica had 1,674 murders for a murder rate of 58 per 100,000 people;[40] that year, Jamaica had the highest murder rate in the world.[38] In November 2008, Jamaica’s parliament voted to retain the death penalty, which is performed by hanging.[41]

The U.S. Department of State reports that brutality against homosexuals, mainly by private citizens, was widespread in 2008.[42] Homosexuality is illegal in Jamaica, incurring a prison sentence.[43] Many Jamaicans are hostile toward LGBT and intersex people,[37] and several mob attacks against gays have been reported.[44][45][46] Attacks on gays are encouraged in some popular Jamaican dancehall/reggae songs that have been called murder music.[47]

[edit] See also
Jamaica portal
Index of Jamaica-related articles
LGBT rights in Jamaica
Outline of Jamaica

[edit] References
^ a b c d e f g h The CIA World Factbook – Jamaica Retrieved 2007-06-27.
^ a b c d “Jamaica”. International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=343&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=57&pr.y=7. Retrieved on 2009-04-22.
^ “Taíno Dictionary” (in Spanish). http://www.uctp.org/VocesIndigena.html. Retrieved on 2007-10-18.
^ http://www.jamaicans.com/articles/primearticles/taino.shtml
^ http://www.jamaicans.com/articles/primearticles/taino.shtml
^ http://www.jamaicans.com/articles/primearticles/taino.shtml
^ Jamaican National Heritage Trust
^ Town of Montego Bay info
^ A failed settler society: marriage and demographic failure in early Jamaica, Journal of Social History, Fall, 1994, by Trevor Burnard
^ The Sugar Revolutions and Slavery, U.S. Library of Congress
^ “The Monarchy Today: Queen and Commonwealth”. http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page4923.asp. Retrieved on 2007-06-25.
^ “BBC News: Jamaica confirms opposition win”. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6984105.stm. Retrieved on 2007-09-09.
^ http://www.joshuaproject.net/peopctry.php
^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/in_depth/brits_abroad/html/caribbean.stm
^ The Portuguese of the West Indies
^ http://www.jamaicans.com/speakja/patoisarticle/notpatoisbutjamic.shtml
^ United States immigration statistics
^ Jamaicans to Cuba
^ “Jamaican Census Figures”. http://jamaica-guide.info/past.and.present/religion/. Retrieved on 2007-06-03.
^ “Missionary Atlas Project – Central America, Snapshot of Jamaica”, Map Source: http://www.worldmap.org, Online, 2007, http://www.worldmap.org/maps/other/profiles/jamaica/Jamaica%20Profile.doc
^ Bahá’í International Community (2006-08-11), “Jamaicans celebrate 4th National Baha’i Day”, Bahá’í World News Service, http://news.bahai.org/story/468
^ religiousintelligence.co.uk, religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu
^ Jamaican Jews
^ Dawes, Mark (2003-06-10). publisher=Gleaner Co. “Jews hold firm Life goes on in Old Synagogue”. http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20030610/mind/mind2.html/ publisher=Gleaner Co.. Retrieved on 2007-12-15.
^ Dr. Rebecca Tortello The History of Jamaica – Captivated by Jamaica
^ “Moravian Church Contribution to Education in Jamaica”. http://www.jis.gov.jm/education/html/20041212T090000-0500_4438_JIS_MORAVIAN_CHURCH_CONTRIBUTING_MUCH_TO_EDUCATION.asp. Retrieved on 2007-12-22.
^ “Transforming the Jamaican Education System”. http://www.moec.gov.jm/news/speeches/ict2003.htm. Retrieved on 2007-12-22.
^ No gas from Trinidad, Venezuela by 2009 – Jamaica Observer.com at http://www.jamaicaobserver.com
^ History of Aviation in Jamaica: Part I
^ Statistical Institute of Jamaica at http://www.statinja.com
^ The Jamaica Observer Retrieved 27 June 2007.
^ a b “Petroleum Corp of Jamaica, Petroleum Industry Statistics”. http://www.pcj.com/industry_stat.htm. Retrieved on 2007-07-21.
^ “JPS – JPS’ Power Plants”. http://www.jpsco.com/site.nsf/web/powerPlants.htm. Retrieved on 2008-03-25.
^ “Wigton Wind Farm Company”. http://www.wwfja.com. Retrieved on 2008-03-25.
^ “Petroleum Corp of Jamaica, Petrojam Ethanol”. http://www.pcj.com/petrojam/associate_text.htm. Retrieved on 2007-07-21.
^ a b Doing eBusiness in Jamaica, The Economist Intelligence Unit.
^ a b [http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travelling-and-living-overseas/travel-advice-by-country/north-central-america/jamaica# "North and Central America and Caribbean Jamaica"]. Travel advice by country. United Kingdom, Foreign & Commonwealth Office. 2009-03-20. http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travelling-and-living-overseas/travel-advice-by-country/north-central-america/jamaica#. Retrieved on 2009-03-20.
^ a b Nationmaster Crime Stats
^ Washington Post Foreign Service
^ “Crime, violence and development: trends, costs, and policy options in the Caribbean” (PDF). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. p. 37. http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/Caribbean-study-en.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-12-26.
^ “Jamaica votes for death penalty”. BBC. 2008-11-25. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7749207.stm. Retrieved on 2009-06-04.
^ “2008 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2008 Human Rights Report: Jamaica”. United States, Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 2009-02-25. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/wha/119165.htm. Retrieved on 2009-03-19.
^ Crimes against gays are mounting in Jamaica and across the Caribbean By Tim Padgett. Wednesday, April 12, 2006
^ Lacey, Marc (2008-02-24). “Attacks Show Easygoing Jamaica Is Dire Place for Gays”. New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/24/world/americas/24jamaica.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2. Retrieved on 2009-03-19.
^ “Jamaica: Shield Gays from Mob Attacks”. Human Rights Watch. 2008-01-31. http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2008/01/31/jamaica-shield-gays-mob-attacks. Retrieved on 2009-03-19.
^ Amnesty International (2007-04-15). Document – Jamaica: Amnesty International condemns homophobic violence. Press release. http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/AMR38/004/2007/en/496206cb-d39d-11dd-a329-2f46302a8cc6/amr380042007en.html. Retrieved on 2009-03-19.
^ Infantry, Ashante (2008-03-03). “‘Murder music’ sparks Caribbean tourism boycott call”. Toronto Star. http://www.thestar.com/entertainment/Music/article/308721. Retrieved on 2009-03-19.

[edit] Further reading
Chapman, V.J. 1961. The Marine Algae of Jamaica. Part 1. Myxophyceae and Chlorophyceae. Institute of Jamaica.
Chapman, V.J. 1963. The Marine Algae of Jamaica. Part 2. Phaeophyceas and Rhodophyceae. Institute of Jamaica.

[edit] External links
Find more about Jamaica on Wikipedia’s sister projects:
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More spoken articlesGovernment
Government of Jamaica
Official website of Queen Elizabeth as Queen of Jamaica
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General information
Jamaica entry at The World Factbook
Jamaica from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Jamaica at the Open Directory Project
Wikimedia Atlas of Jamaica
Jamaica travel guide from Wikitravel
Jamaica, an external wiki
General Information on Jamaica
National Library of Jamaica materials in the Digital Library of the Caribbean
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Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaica”
Categories: Jamaica | States and territories established in 1962 | Greater Antilles | CARICOM members | English-speaking countries and territories | Former British colonies | Former Spanish colonies | Island countries | Constitutional monarchies | Liberal democracies | G15 nations | Members of the Commonwealth of Nations
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