Mencius

Mencius (Mengzi or Meng-tzu) (371-289 BCE) is one of the greatest of the classical Chinese philosophers. His fame rests on a book of philosophical precepts named after himself and included as one the Four Classics by Chu-Hsi in 1190 CE. Mencius was born close to the state of Lu, where Confucius also lived and studied. Not a great deal is known about the life of Mencius apart from what can be inferred from the study of his book, which was in any case likely to have been compiled by his disciples after his death. However, it is known that he was taught by the grandsons of Confucius himself and that he subsequently made a series of journeys to learn the views of various temporal and spiritual leaders and to put forth his own opinions.

The Mencius text is based on a variety of principles which are in tune with Confucian thought and which are then analysed and developed through the text, which is itself divided into seven books each of two parts. The first of the main principles is that of the twin concepts of ren (benevolence) and yi (compassion). Mencius believed that people were fundamentally good in nature and that this could be observed through such natural phenomena as the love of parents for their children and vice versa. The main purpose of the life of a person, therefore, was to develop both ren and yi both for the sake of the individuals concerned and for society as a whole. By cultivating these virtues, Mencius argued that people would be able to discern the proper course of action in any situation, no matter how complex and contradictory it may seem.

The second principle to consider here is that of hsiao or filial piety. This, he held, to be the greatest social virtue in that it bound families, societies and ultimately states together on harmonious terms. Practicing hsiao means to honour and obey one’s parents and to take on the responsibility of producing a new generation of children who would then have the opportunity and duty to maintain hsiao into the future. A childless man (gender discrimination was practiced) was doing a great harm to himself and to the whole of society. This is one reason why men were permitted to take more than one wife or to maintain concubines if they could afford it, in addition to other, obvious reasons of status, power and sexual desire.

The third principle for which Mencius is largely remembered is that of the Mandate of Heaven (tien ming), which is presented to the Emperor by the realms of the supernatural and which provide the legitimacy of his rule. If the Emperor behaves badly or for some other reason, the tien ming could be withdrawn and the Emperor could be struck down without fear of reprisal by the gods. It was possible to tell when tien ming was withdrawn through the presence of natural disasters such as starvation and earthquake, war and eventually through astrology. 

For more details, see On Philosophy in China by Hyun Höchsmann.