Intelligence

Though most people think of intelligence as a familiar concept, many experts consider it a very controversial subject.  Few of them agree on an exact definition or on one theory related to identifying and quantifying important aspects.

Many investigators believe that intelligence is made of several mental abilities, or factors.  British psychologist, Charles Spearman (1904) suggested that the behaviors we consider intelligent have a common underlying factor.  He believed that people have general intelligence, or broad reasoning and problem-solving abilities, he labeled this factor “g.”  He also believed that some people have specific intelligence, or abilities in areas like business, math, poetry, music, etc., he called this factor “s.”  Spearman developed factor analysis in order to test his theory.  This statistical technique allows researchers to figure out which items on an intelligence test seem to be measuring the same things.  In his research on relationships among test scores in verbal, mathematical, and spatial reasoning, he repeatedly found evidence supporting the existence of s intelligence.  He found much less evidence supporting the g intelligence.  Louis Thurstone (1938) tested factor analysis and found similar results.  Thurstone came to the conclusion that Spearman had oversimplified the concept of intelligence.  He then came up with the view that people could excel in some areas, but be average in others.  This view made sense to psychologists.  Though Thurstone used only nine intelligence factors, psychologist J. P. Guilford (1988) expanded on this and came up with hundreds of factors.  The only thing wrong with this was that too many of these factors overlapped.

Another intelligence theory is Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences.  Howard Gardner (1983) proposed the existence of seven kinds of intelligence: language, musical, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic talent, interpersonal skills, intrapersonal skills, and spatial-relations skills.  Gardner also believed that each kind of intelligence has a neurological base in different areas of the brain.  Critics of Gardner’s theory will generally agree that people function better in some areas than others, but many disagree as to whether talents (musical, bodily-kinesthetic) should be included with actual intelligences (logical-mathematical, language).

Yet another intelligence theory is Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory.  There are three kinds of intelligences in this theory; Componential Intelligence, Experimental Intelligence, and Contextual Intelligence (Sternberg, 1985).  Componential Intelligence is academic ability and is characterized by the abilities to; solve problems, compare and contrast, judge, evaluate, and criticize.   Experimental Intelligence is creative ability and is characterized by the abilities to; invent, discover, suppose, and theorize.  Contextual Intelligence is practical ability and is characterized by the abilities to; adapt to the demands of one’s environment, and apply knowledge in practical situations.