The effects of colonization on indigenous cultures have been emphasized studies of many peoples. Colonization often leads to isolated, indigenous cultures losing or drastically altering their traditions and ways of life for those of an invading, more technologically advanced and wealthier culture. Leavitt’s article shows us a different side of colonization. His focus is on an unsucessful attempt by the Europeans to colonize the Bumbita Arapesh, and how this incomplete colonization affected their culture and belief systems.
    Stephen Leavitt is a psychological anthropologist who did his early field research with the Bumbita Arapesh. He lived with them for over two years in the 1980s, gaining an intimate knowledge of their culture. His focus on the psychological aspects of anthropology is evident through this work. The article explores the effects of abandonment on the Bumbita’s beliefs and psyches rather than on the structural aspects of their culture. Through anecdotes, he demonstrates how they handled the loss of European contact which had once played a significant role in their culture. It begins with a brief survey the Bumbita Arapesh.
    The Bumbita Arapesh were fairly isolated until 1925, when the Australian government started regular interaction. During World War II by both sides took turns occupying the region. Missionaries arrived and stayed through the 1980s (Leavitt 1995:181). Throughout this time the Bumbita were exposed to varying levels of colonization and isolation. The Bumbita’s culture was permanently changed after dealing with this constant flux of colonization.
    According to Leavitt, the Bumbita welcomed colonization. They tried to adapt to all the ideals the Europeans introduced. As told by a native Bumbita Arapesh; Europeans came and said “You have to follow us, You have to learn to be like us” (Leavitt 1995:178). The Bumbita did not put up much of a struggle; they embraced the change. They followed the path of colonization and learned from the foreign culture. With the Europeans came the promise of more material wealth. The Melanesians sum this idea up with the word “cargo.” Cargo is an idea used to express the wealth one culture has that a less developed culture is often trying to obtain, often during colonization of the less modernized culture. When the Europeans left the Bumbita Arapesh were left with a destroyed culture from the colonization efforts. They were told to change things, and adopt the ways of the Europeans without being told how to make these changes. By that point they had then lost much of their old culture and had not fully gained the European culture.
      Much of the tradition today of the Bumbita Arapesh is created from the absence of the Europeans, and the Bumbita trying to rebuild their culture. They developed new beliefs where the Europeans are the subject of their ideology. The Bumbita created new beliefs in which some Europeans are embodiments of their dead ancestors who hold the secrets of their cargo. Leavitt explains that this is a way to cope with not only the absence of the Europeans, but also with the resentment of their “cargo.” They resented the Europeans for having all the wealth and technological advancement, promising it to the Bumbita, then abandoning them. The Europeans gave the Bumbita Arapesh hopes of gaining the cargo and then left them without very little of the European culture along with very little of the Bumbita’s own culture. The failed colonization left them in an even more unstable socioeconomic environment than they had before the Europeans ‘arrival. The invented caregiver belief helped them not be resentful of their lack of cargo. They believe it is through magic that the Europeans (as their dead ancestors) have so much more than them. These beliefs help them explain the Europeans that are still sometimes present in their culture, and why they are still unable to attain the cargo they know is possible.
    The caregiver model helps them cope with the longing they have developed for the Europeans return. They are able to understand and forgive the Europeans’ distance, since they are perceived to be their ancestors. It also provides them with the goals of contacting and trading secrets with them Europeans in order to gain their cargo.
    This article reflects many important topics that have been discussed in this class. Many of the first articles we read spoke of how cultures are dealing with the presence of outside colonization while trying to still embrace their old cultures. In the debate between Linnekin and Trask many arguments were made both for and against colonization (Linnekin 1984, Trask 1991). Leavitt’s article can be viewed from both sides, as the outcome of the colonization, had it been more sucessful, is unknown. The Bumbita are not the only people to come up with a caregiver model to cope with adverse situations, in Brison’s article a similar idea was seen in the Kwanga people, from the same area as the Bumbita Arapesh, with their veiw of the European’s save. (Brison 1995:157) Though the Bumbita are an isolated culture, their cultural experiences are similar to others we have seen.
    Leavitt’s article is told mostly through anecdotes supporting his main points. Through his stories he shows us how the ebbs and flow of European colonization affected the Bumbita Arapesh and the changes in culture that arose from them. Concepts he covered, like cultural desires for cargo, creating a place for invading colonists within a culture, and shifts in economy and cultural structure due to colonization are important in cultural studies far outside the Bumbita. His article is easy to read, even for those with very little background in either the Bumbita or colonization. It has interesting stories to support his claims and draws from personal experience, providing a great overview of colonization of the Bumbita Arapesh.

References

Brison, Karen
1995 Changing Constructions of Masculinity in a Sepik Society. Ethnology. 34(3): 155-75

Leavitt, Stephen                                                                                                                                            1995 Political Domination and the Absent Oppressor: Images of Europeans in Bumbita Arapesh Narratives. Ethnology 34(3):177-189

Linnekin, Jocelyn
1984 Tradition, Genuine or Spurious. Journal of American Folklore. 97(385): 67-82

Trask, Haunani-Kay
1991 Natives and Anthropologists: The Colonial Struggle. The Contemporary Pacific 3(1): 159-67