Though civil society agencies in the present sense as distinct from state agencies emerged in India during British rule, the contemporary Globalisation, Liberalisation and Privatisation (LPG) project has generated fresh debate about the nature and role of civil society in India. Theorists like Partha Chatterjee and Sudipta Kaviraj have given interesting arguments regarding the place of civil society in third world countries in general and India in particular. According to them, the western notions of state and civil society are not useful categories in understanding the Indian situation since the nature of these institutions has become substantially different from those of their European counterparts due to colonial intervention. They view with skepticism the attempts of those scholars who are privileging the civil society by decrying the dominant role of state. For them, the state in India is less extensive than the states in western countries. Thus, using the neo-liberal critique of western state and pleading for the withdrawal of state is not maintainable in India. Partha Chatterjee finds special relationship between the masses and the state in India, which gives rise to what he calls ‘political society’, that is distinct from civil society. Also, due to the distinct socio-economic conditions and the greater need of equity and social justice, many scholars are not in favour of reducing the role of the state from the vital areas of public interest.

Inspire of these reservation, the civil society in India is gradually emerging, sometimes to supplement the efforts of the government and sometimes working as a bulwark against the abuse of authority by the government agencies. The modern notion of voluntary action has its origin in Protestant Christianity. During colonial rule in India, the activities of Christian missionaries in providing health, education and various other facilities are viewed upon by some to be the first voluntary action in India. However, noted political scholar, Rajni Kothari claims that voluntarism is the essence of Indian civilisation and the core of Indian civilisation is cultural rather than political. According to him, historically, Indian states were always marginal and limited in their sphere of action. The real functioning of society was enabled by voluntary organisations that are based on caste, religion and commercial interests. He argues that the perception of dichotomy between state directed and voluntary initiatives has arisen only in recent decades after the modem states and their institutions either began to impede the voluntary ethos of Indian society or forced themselves on what people did on their own. Thus, according to Rajni Kothari, the present intei*st in voluntary action in India is nothing but going back to the native Indian tradition of social life voluntarily managed by the community.

The civil society organisations found fertile ground during the colonial rule. The Indian rennaisance during the later part of the 19th century was largely promoted and facilitated by various social and religious reform movements like, Arya Samaj, Brahma Samaj, Prathana Samaj, Servants of India Society and host of other such collective and individual initiatives beyond the control and authority of the state. The Gandhian reconstruction programme, Sarvoday, Bhoodan etc. are the shining examples of the working of civil society in 20th century.

However, the contemporary non-governmental organisations in India have their origin in 1970s and 1980s. This is the period when state initiatives were increasingly being looked at with doubt and skepticism. It was also a response and reaction to the failure of the state and its policies as well as the abuse of authority by the agencies of the government. Thereafter, there is virtual multiplication of voluntary associations in different fields of activities in India. Though only about 16000 NGOs are registered in India, their number is estimated around one lakh. The non-governmental organisations are being looked upon as vital instruments supplementing the development initiatives of the state in India.

The government response towards NGOs is two-fold-one to encourage their role by coopting them in development process or to view them as interference in the development activities. In the first category, the government initiated the Council for Advancement of People’s Action and Rural Technology (CAPART) which encourages the involvement of NGOs in the rural development process. In the second category, come the NGOs which demand the rights of people and objecting the weaknesses in the policies and programmes of the government. However, the coopting of NGOs by the government in implementing its policies has been viewed by some scholars as encroachment in the sphere of civil society by the state.

In the contemporary Indian scene, there area number of civil society organisations or collective initiatives beyond the control of the state, which are supplementary as well as challenging the policies and programmes of the government. The Narmada Bachao Andolan led by Medha Patekar fights for the rights of people ousted by the construction of Narmada dam. The Chipko Andolan of Sunderlal Bahuguna and Appiko Andolan in south stand for the protection of environment. The social movement led by Anna Hazare aims to ensure transparent and corruption free administrative process. Mother Teresa organised welfare of destitute women and children. Baba Amte organised welfare and treatment of lepers. The Mazdoor Kishan Shakti Sangthan (MKSS) led by Aruna Roy is fighting against corruption and for the right to information. People’s Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL) is engaged in the protection of human rights of people. Besides there are movements for the welfare of specific sections of society like children, women, Dalits and tribals.

There are certain factors which undermine the effective roles of civil society organisations in India. These factors are bureau­cratic apathy, political interference, lack of accountability on the part of NGOs, entry of self seeking individuals with ulterior motives in voluntary sectors and lack of appreciation by people about their role and position in society.

A number of Indian scholars have made critical observation about the role of civil society in the contemporary Indian context. Neera Chandoke notes that just as the attention paid to the NGOs has failed to account for civil society, the focus on civil society fails to comprehend its complex relationship with the state. For instance, in India, civil society is seen by most theorists as a volatile association of social groupings, which are based on caste and Kinship Linkages, or on religious mobilisation as much on voluntary associations. According to her, the problem with this kind of formulation is that it fails to distinguish between civil society and counter civil society movements : The civil society is thus being treated as residual category.

Dipankar Gupta warns that there is a need to be wary, in the name of civil society, of giving into traditional solidarities and associations, as they are unfavourable to the modern institutions. Andre Beteilli argues that the well being of the modern institutions ! can be guaranteed only if civil societies are understood as comprising only of autonomous bodies. T. K. Oommen comments that looking at civil society in India from the vantage point of religion, caste and language, it is clear that the associations and movements anchored to them are instruments of establishing equality between the privileged and deprived groups. But the mobilizations by the underprivileged social categories are geared to bring dignity and emancipation for them. In contrast, mobilizations by dominant categories are on effort to reinforce their hegemony. Both these aspects should be recognised as different aspects of civil society in India,

As stated earlier, the ‘withdrawal of state’ thesis is not approved by many scholars in India, even in the contemporary context of
LPG; because of greater need of equity and social justice which can be fulfilled largely by the state as an all representative institution.
In spite of the challenges of civil society in India as listed above, it has emerged as a supplementary effort in the development process sponsored by the government as well as a bulwark against the abuse of authority by the state.