If you compare those days to the education in our society today, the modern world has important learning facilities like computers, encouragement of interaction between teacher and pupil, availability of a wide variety of subjects, restrictions on discipline, child and teacher rights and interaction with other schools. It is difficult to imagine how school was like in 1800’s. One of the biggest changes at that time until the modern times is gender equality. Females were not educated at that time because they thought women would grow up learning to do all the housework and when they got married, the men would go out and do their jobs while the women would stay at home do all the housework and nurture a baby.

As mentioned above, in the second half of the 19th century the Australian government assumed direct responsibility for education from the churches, local groups and tutors. Until then, these private organizations had supplemented the public schools which lacked quality. The creation of the new government schools came as the result of an argument by the public.

The new system was based on principles of secular, compulsory and free education. Religion was a source of conflict to be avoided in the new government school system, so government schools were to be secular with no teaching of religion.

Schooling was compulsory and children were required to attend school both because literacy and numeracy were a way to the common good, and because educated citizens were essential to self-government. Education was free, because it served the public benefit.

By 1880, the government invested in education by allocating money to pay teachers, erect classrooms, and buy necessary textbooks. Around that time most parents would send their children to government schools and the church-run schools were driven out of business because they had no government funding, but it was not until 1900 where the church-run schools were forced to run by this government system due to the decreasing number of parents choosing to send their children to church-run schools.

 For the first time, boys and girls had the right to have an education. Both genders would be taught the basic subjects during the day (maths, English, science) and after they were completed, women would usually spend an extra 80 minutes learning to sew, knit and yarn while boys would  spend that time learning about geometry, geography and arithmetic. Although every child had the right to have an education, these schools were very strict. One of the government’s aims was to have their children courteous, polite, well behaved, and avoiding all things which would make them disagreeable to the society.

The depression of the 1890s and the need for skilled workers forced working citizens to demand that education in schools to be improved. In the face of criticism from British visitors and politicians as well, commissions were set up to investigate developments in education overseas. Their reports left no doubt that the education systems needed major changes.

It was not until the mid 1890’s that the government introduced a system where they used three different types of certificates for students. Qualifying certificates were awarded for students successfully passing examinations after completing six years in elementary school. Scholarships were awarded which entitled successful students to four years of higher education. The Intermediate certificate was awarded for the successful completion of four years of high school, and the Leaving certificate for the completion of another two years. A student who wanted to enter University also needed a Leaving certificate. These certificates really boosted the children’s academic results because every parent wanted their child to be superior so there was a lot of competition involved, likewise nowadays.

Education in Australia has come a long way since it first became free and compulsory. Australia was one of the first countries to adapt secular education. This law set up in Victoria the basis for a uniquely centralised model of school education, unlike those in Britain, the United States or Canada. Victoria was the first of the Australian colonies to set up a central public school system based on the principles of free, secular and compulsory education. If you look around the world today, most first world countries will have this system originating from Victoria. The Education Act of 1872, Victoria was no short of a

Bibliography

http://www.aussieeducator.org.au/education/other/history.html Date Used: 20/5/2011
http://resources.mhs.vic.edu.au/library/national_development%5Cnational_development.htm Date Used: 20/5/2011
http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?sdID=25 Date Used: 25/5/2011

Lee’s surrender to Grant at Appomattox courthouse assured the federal government supremacy over the established states. Before the war the republicans were a majority in congress and after the victory over the south, they were politically dominant giving the north advantage over the south in terms of new developments such as Freedmen’s Bureau. Clash between Johnson and congress ensued when he passed the Black Codes as freedom of the blacks in the south hung in the balance. Black votes led the republican candidate Ulysses S. Grant to victory in the bloody shirt campaign in 1868 because they believed that he won the war for them liberating them. Carpetbaggers who came to the south under federal protection made money of the reconstruction leading to the era of good stealings where corruption ran rampant. Towards this time many tried to get rich and one such scandal was the credit mobilier where the union pacific railroad company hired their own to raise dividends, which hindered economic growth undermining the government. The civil war impacted many people’s lives as the Grant’s eight years of presidency was marred by business corruption leading to dislike of political parties and even further splits namely the Liberal republicans. It also led to the first depression, deflation and inflation after the war where thousands of businesses went bankrupt. Due to the inflation hard silver money was issued by congress, which failed and led to gold standards; then exchanged from Greenback to gold assured the Democrats victory over the finance. This was called the Gilded age because of the instability of the house and party, which premiered the next election in 1876, which was won by Rutherford B. Hayes. During this time because of the second industrial revolution, industries of oil and steel began to grow; businesses became complex organizations and the Transcontinental was built. Over all despite the scrapes, the civil war helped the north to increase in new developments as politically and economically strong.

During the times of reconstruction and the gilded age, both the north and the south faced difficulties as they both had to convince each other to trust themselves in matters concerning finance and politics. The presidents who were in office during these slow and productive yet perilous years did not could not work in unison with congress to complete the reconstruction, as their rash policies caused much distrust between the south and north leading to new problems rising from old wounds. Scandals during president Grant’s term caused by far the worst effects of the war as many tried to get rich involving any methods further, hampering progress. The economic crisis of 1873 further sank Grant’s presidential term in to the quick sand as economic anarchy was on the brink of release with thousands out of jobs. While these plagued the north, southern supremacists used formed their own chains of violence such as the Ku Klux Klan, which terrorized the blacks who voted and also white republicans. Cotton was no longer king but was dethroned and the south had to find new ways to form their economy. Southern racism with merged with political corruption and economic collapse in 1873 paralyzed the south. Reconstruction was hated and thus havoc was wreaked as the south issued law after law like the Black codes to subdue freed blacks from voting giving the north an advantage because of the extra votes. Despite all these maladies, the nation united to form a leading power by the time of the Spanish -American war proving to the world what it aspired for.

Grant’s victory over Lee sealed the fate of the south. With the federal government in charge and the north dominating, the south received what it asked for. The collapse of the confederacy left the south with nothing but a decimated government and charred cotton fields. The Democrats before the war were a handful in congress and after it, they were virtually had no representation since they seceded from the union. Thus when Johnson became president it seemed the south had a chance but one of the key political effects of the war was putting the republicans from the north in congress, dampening the hopes of the southerners. Since Abraham Lincoln issued the emancipation proclamation abolishing slavery, three and a half million slaves were freed resulting in utter political and economical chaos. When Johnson continued Lincoln’s reconstruction plan biased for the south, republican congress dismissed it; an example of one was the Black Codes. Meant for the regulation of Black political and economical activity, the codes issued by Mississippi, which was sanctioned by Johnson; but was rejected by congress that knew and expected their votes in the upcoming elections. With all the slaves free, vast pompous plantations were depleted of labor force injuring the south because of the lack of mechanical industrialization like the north. New developments for the betterment of the south were hampered because of the 14th and 15th amendment and the birth of the KKK led by Nathan Bedford Forrest.  But despite these problems northern carpetbaggers came to invest in the south and started to build an economy. The civil war, led to the abolition of slavery which in turn led to Tenancy and sharecropping as a new method of jobs. Transportation was increased by the compromise of 1877 as the south was promised a transcontinental railroad. New developments were slower in the south because of the racial tensions; which caused them to distrust the government and weakened the economic strength. With the republicans winning the presidential campaign, the southern democrats had no chance improving their conditions; which form the time period of 1865 to 1900. jose

Over all from the time period of 1865 to 1900 new political and economic developments were made, as with out which America could not have entered on the forefront of the world scene in world war one. Even though it seemed as if problems exceeded solutions, new developments were made in the north and south both politically and economically which solely were derived from the civil war. The civil war had led to a renewed start for America consolidating it territories once and for all. Key amendments such as the 13th 14th and the 15th were sanctioned by the states and despite the hardships it succeeded.  With out a civil warm, American would not have been what it is today- a super power.

Ireland is located west Europe.It’s very peaceful place.I think they are football fans too ?

There are many castle’s and this country has long past.The largest city is Dublin.In past Ireland was cover with ice, like 10000 year ago.It’s third biggest island in Europe.Biggest point is Carrauntoohil(click on to see full info )   

It’s very good place if you like historic.

Carrauntoohill pictures :

It’s over 1030 meter high.

I think that Irish pub’s are well know in the word.

Take a look to my other travelling articles:

Triond.com/users/kristoferm.

To get more inforead form wiki(it’s very long text)

Just google “Ireland wiki”.

Thank you for reading.

With the acquisition of the Philippians, America is so much safer, especially that we are in better position to protect our nation from danger. Although the Pilipino do not like the fact that we are controlling their nation, the fact is that we need their land: to protect us from foreign nations. Furthermore, they are strategically located to make our trade with China and the other Asian countries easier and more efficient. As Americans, we want our nation to succeed and if that means taking over the Philippians, then so be it. We never made a treaty with them saying that we would not intervene like we did with Cuba, so we have no obligation to not imperialize this territory. The lives of many could be at stake if we do not have control of the Philippians because nations such as Japan are slowly increasing in power and we need a defense system on our Pacific coast. As Machiavelli states, “The end justifies the mean” and in this case the lives of many outweigh the opinion of a few Pilipino. We are not oppressing these people; we just need to use the land for our benefit, so there should be no reason for these people to complain. The nation of America in order to succeed, must take the Philippians under its wing as a protective barrier between us and the Asian nations.  

The day started out as any other day in Galveston, it was warm and sunny, people walking the streets taking on their every day duties, kids and adults soaking the sun in the warm ocean, Isaac Cline the local meteorologist even stated it was “one of the most beautiful days the island has ever seen”. Unfortunately, it was also one of the most tragic.

The islanders had gotten word of a storm coming, most didn’t think anything of it they had gotten storm warnings before and nothing more but a few high tides came through, they had been through this before they would do it again, but that afternoon, the rain really began to fall heavily, the ocean started to come into the town up into peoples hard, The water rose at a steady rate from 3pm-7pm, the wind was snapping the trees, debris was flying everywhere, the winds were lastly noted at 145mph before the weather barometer was blown off the Levy Building, 20 ft waves came over the island swallowing everything in its path, houses were town town, buildings were destroyed, families torn from each other swept away by the flood waters.

St Marys Orphanage right on the beach was destroyed and ten nuns and 90 children were killed when the orphanage collapsed.

By the end of the night, the storm had passed leaving a trail of death and destruction, About 3000 which was almost half of the residence of Galveston had been swept completely away. The storm of 1900 literally demolished the town of Galveston, after all said and done, 8000 people were killed.

The clean up was almost just as terrible as the hurricane itself, men of the town were forced to go through town and look for bodies, of course they could not bury them in the grave yards so they would take them far out to sea, just to realize a couple of days later bodies were washing back up on the shore, the men had to pile bodies up were they found them and burn them.

Galveston came back strong, they built a 15 ft hightseawall to protect the island from something like this ever happening again, in 1915 a hurricane with almost the same force of the 1900 storm came through, the seawall protected Galveston this time.

November 19, 2009

Theodore Roosevelt is most widely known as the 26th president of the United States; however, prior to his presidency he accomplished much in his personal life. Theodore Roosevelt was born on October 27th, 1858. He had an elder sister

named Anna and two younger siblings named Elliott and Corinne. Theodore Roosevelt was first married to Alice Hathaway Lee who mothered his daughter Alice. When Theodore’s mother died on February 14, 1886. That same day, Theodore’s 1st wife ended up dieing. Later on, Theodore married again to his childhood sweetheart Edith Kermit Carow. They ended up having five children together named Theodore Jr., Kermit, Ethel Carow, Archibald Bulloch and Quentin. Then in 1895, Roosevelt finally Roosevelt finally became the president of the board of New York City police Commissioners and changed the corrupt reputation of the police force. The NYPD’s history division records that Roosevelt was “an iron-willed leader of unimpeachable honesty, (who) brought a reforming zeal to the New York City Police Commission in 1895.” Roosevelt eventually joined the Navy and then later resigned and forming the First U.S. Volunteer Cavalry Regiment called The Rough Riders. Roosevelt and The Rough Riders became famous in their daring dual charges up Kettle Hill and San Juan Hill on July 1, 1898. On leaving the Army, Roosevelt was elected governor of New York in 1898 and then made McKinley’s running mate in the 1900 election. Then Theodore Roosevelt became vice presidnet and when Mckinley died, Theodore Roosevelt took his role as president.

Galveston’s History

At the turn of the 20th century, Galveston was a hub of progress and sophistication. Known as the “Wall Street of the Southwest”, Galveston was a town of firsts. It had the state’s first post office, hospital, opera house, golf course, and country club. In the summer of 1900, the population of Galveston had reached 42,000.

The island’s original inhabitants were Karankawa and Akokisa Indians. In 1817, the pirate Jean Lafitte reached an agreement with Mexico, allowing him to settle the island in exchange for privateering against the Spanish. Lafitte established the colony of Campeche. The settlement grew to over 1,000 residents and a substantial transient population, most of them smugglers, slave traders, buccaneers, and their women.

In 1818, a hurricane struck the island. The storm left hundreds dead, leveled much of the town, and destroyed a fleet of ships. Lafitte rebuilt Campeche, but attacks from the Karankawa weakened the town, and the growing criminal population was hard to control. Given an ultimatum by the American Navy in 1821, Lafitte fled the island, burning Campeche behind him.

From the ruins of the pirate town grew the thriving settlement of Galveston. During the Texas Revolution in 1835-6, Galveston was the main port for the Texas navy. Formally founded in 1839, Galveston flourished as a center of commerce and trade. By the latter part of the 19th century, it was the biggest town in Texas.

Then, in 1875, a hurricane struck the nearby town of Indianola, on Matagorda Bay. A busy port city, Indianola was reduced to ruins. Residents rebuilt the town. In 1886, a hurricane leveled Indianola once more. Many residents gave up and moved on. In Galveston, some people saw the warning signs. Galveston’s highest point was only 8.7 feet (2.65m) above sea level. A few sandbars were the only protection from the open waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Much of the sand had been dug away to fill low-lying areas of the town.

Worried citizens asked the town to build a protective seawall, but the government and even many of the residents believed it unnecessary. Galveston had weathered severe storms in the past. In 1891, Galveston Weather Bureau section director Isaac Cline wrote a news article stating that a seawall wasn’t needed, and that it was impossible for a hurricane of significant strength to strike the island.

Evolution of a Hurricane

In August 1900, a tropical wave had been gathering strength off the western coast of Africa. The fledgling storm moved west over the Atlantic. A ship recorded an area of “unsettled weather” east of the Windward Islands on August 27. On August 30, the storm passed over the Leeward Islands as a tropical depression, bringing low atmospheric pressure and heavy rain.

Three days later, Antigua reported a severe thunderstorm, and on September 1 the Weather Bureau reported a moderately intense storm southeast of Cuba. High winds and rain struck Cuba two days later. Forecasters disagreed about the path of the storm. On September 4, the central Weather Bureau in Washington issued a storm warning from Pensacola, Florida, to Galveston, Texas.

Still gathering strength, the weather system moved into the Florida Straits on September 5 as a tropical storm. Several weeks of hot, cloudless weather in the Gulf of Mexico had raised the water temperature, making conditions ideal for a hurricane. As it traveled north of Key West, the storm fed on warm air rising from the Gulf waters, and got stronger.

On September 7, the Weather Bureau in New Orleans reported heavy damage to the coast in Louisiana and Mississippi. Destruction to telegraph lines hampered communication, and details were limited. The storm had reached the intensity of a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Scale (measuring hurricanes from Category 1 – mild – to Category 5 – catastrophic.).

In Galveston, the Weather Bureau issued a hurricane warning.

Storm Strike

Despite the warning, the weather in Galveston remained unremarkable. Even as rain clouds began to move in on the morning of September 8, few believed that a hurricane would hit, and most people didn’t take the warnings seriously enough to evacuate. By early afternoon, the wind was blowing steadily from the northeast. By 5 pm, winds reached 100 mph (160 km/h). Shortly afterward, the Weather Bureau’s anemometer ripped from the building. Winds were estimated at 120 mph (190 km/h), but later estimates put them as high as 200 mph (320 km/h). By 6 pm, panicked people were scrambling to attics and rooftops, as massive waves crashed over the shore and flooded their streets and homes.

The storm struck Galveston as a Category 4 hurricane. At 7:30 pm, a storm surge of over 15 feet (4.6m) submerged the entire island. Howling winds and torrents of rain pummeled the town. High winds and surging water ripped entire buildings into the air, smashing them into other buildings. Pounding waves reduced homes to splinters. Only a few survived. In the harbor, the hurricane tore ships from their moorings and hurled them as far as two miles inland. People were no match for the ferocity of the storm. Thousands drowned, or were killed by falling and flying debris.

The eye of the hurricane passed over Galveston about 8pm. By 11pm, the savage winds diminished. The storm had destroyed bridges and telegraph poles, and no word of the awful devastation could reach the mainland that night. The battered survivors spent the night in shock and horror, listening to the screams of those who were trapped beneath the rubble.

The next morning, one of the few remaining ships limped into port at Texas City, bearing a handful of survivors. At the time, the death toll was estimated at 500. Rescuers were not prepared for the carnage they found.

Aftermath

About 8,000 people, or twenty percent of Galveston residents lost their lives. Many died beneath the debris, as rescuers struggled in vain to reach them. Some estimates put the death toll between 6,000 to 12,000. The list of the dead was never completed.

Thirty thousand people were homeless, 3,600 homes destroyed completely, and part of the island sank in the Gulf of Mexico. Among the dead were the ten nuns of St. Mary’s Orphanage, and 90 orphans. When their bodies were found, some of the sisters were still clinging to the corpses of the children they had sworn to protect.

John D. Blagden was on temporary assignment to the Weather Bureau when the storm struck. In a September 10 letter to his family, he writes, “There is not a building in town that is uninjured. Hundreds are busy day and night clearing away the debris and recovering the dead. It is awful. Every few minutes a wagon load of corpses passes by on the street.”

Because of the vast number of bodies, it was impossible to bury them all. The bodies were weighted, and thrown out to sea. Many washed back up to shore, and workers had the unhappy task of building funeral pyres along the seashore to burn the bodies. Some members of the rescue crew had to throw the bodies of their own wives and children onto the pyres. The fires burned for weeks.

Survivors erected U.S. Army surplus tents on the beach. There were so many tents that people called them “the White City on the Beach”. By September 12, mail began to arrive again in Galveston. Water and telegraph service was partially restored on September 13. Within three weeks, the port began to ship cotton again, but it would be months before the search for bodies ended. The center of trade and development moved north, to Houston. Galveston would never again enjoy the glory of its former years.

After the disaster, the government installed protective measures to ensure that such a tragedy didn’t happen again. In 1902, engineers began work on three miles of a 17-foot-high seawall. A new, all-weather bridge to the mainland was built. Using dredged sand, engineers raised the city itself up to 17 feet higher than its previous elevation. The engineer in charge of the seawall and city elevation was Henry Martyn Robert – the same man who developed Robert’s Rules of Order.

When another hurricane struck Galveston in 1915, with a storm surge of twelve feet, the improvements withstood the brunt of the storm. Fifty-two people perished.

Today, Galveston is a major cruise port. The town extended the seawall from three to ten miles (16km). The Victorian homes that survived the storm still stand, in honor of the tragedy, and the people who died, and the people who lived.

Galveston’s stormy history isn’t over yet. On September 13, 2008, Hurricane Ike hit the eastern end of the island, wreaking havoc with a storm surge between 17 and 20 feet, and winds in excess of 100 mph (160 km/h). Fifty-one people lost their lives. After Hurricane Ike, 13,000 residents abandoned the remains of their homes, and left Galveston for good. The city is working to rebuild.

Before 1750, the seven million people who lived in Britain mostly lived in small villages and farming was their main occupation. People grew their own food and apart from London there was no other city and there were neither any factories. They were few industries throughout Britain, most of which made iron, woolen cloth or mined coal.

As the industrial revolution began, between 1750 and 1850 Britain became an industrialized country and its population increased rapidly, so much so that by 1851 Britain had gotten 21 million people, half of whom lived in large cities. More industries had been set, out of which the most prominent were coal mining, iron and steel, cotton, wool and shipbuilding. This all would often be referred to as the first revolution.

By 1880 Germany and other countries in Europe began to challenge Britain. At this point in time Britain began its second Industrial Revolution and began to develop new industries such as motorcars, bicycles, electrical engineering and chemicals. Although new industries had been made, Britain still depent on the old industries, such as steel, coal mining and shipbuilding, for money.

The industrial revolution aided the middle class of Europe triumph. Due to the many various industries set up, there became more factories and even mills, which decreased unemployment. Although more people could obtain jobs, it was under strict conditions with long hours of work, however, these factors were even present before the industrial revolution had taken place.

The revolution had also made changes for factories for it led to the creating of factories, which was a major influence on the rise of our modern cities. This could be seen in Manchester, which could be seen as the world’s first industrial city. During the 19th century small mills, which mostly ran on waterpower, did all major productions but later on, factories began to run on steam power.

The revolution also led to increasing child labour in Europe, for with a increasing population of children, expenses had increased and thus children had to work for long hard hours. Even though their work was comparable to that of adult workers, most people paid them less.

The feudal castes were also made more prominent as the rich had luxurious lives with large homes loosely modeled on castles, surrounded by massive gardens. The poor on the other hand had small homes on cramped streets, shared toilet facilities with other homes and would have open sewers. Fortunately, during the revolution around in the 19th century, health acts were introduced, which covered such sewers and made Europe more hygienic.

There were many other effects caused by the revolution such as disease spread due to population increase and Luddities attacking factories and machines for taking their jobs.

There would be no programming guidelines for television or radio, no newspapers or magazines, no text books for education and no words to pass on to future generations. Books and magazines began to take shape during the middle ages, when monks and priest from many cultures recorded history, local lore and predictions in hand writing. This period in time is referred to as the Manuscript Culture because words were scripted manually and not by machine. The monks carefully hand printed words on parchment and wood pages, then bound the pages together and decorated the script with beautiful illustrations. They made copies and developed the art of bookmaking. The drawings and symbols supported the meaning of the words.

Many hours were spent designing the wood or leather covers to keep article pages clean and safe, a few of these first books remain intact today. Paper from cotton and linen was invented in China but parchment remained the favorite medium until the invention of the printing press. (Campell, Martin, & Fabos, 2009, p. 355)

Therefore, the printed word began in the form of ancient books printed on clay and papyrus that have recorded history and sculpted society’s thoughts for well over two thousand years. (Campell, Martin, & Fabos, 2009, p. Timeline). The control of the how the printed word would influence the future of media began during the Manuscript Culture period because it was decided by the monks and priest what was printed and recorded. Many of these priests worked for the rulers of the region who told the priests what to write which added to the influence of words and what the public was allowed to learn. The most well known of these collections of articles, is known today, as the Bible.

Some of the most beautiful books ever produced were from the middle ages when monks devoted their lives to making illuminated manuscripts with beautifully decorated pages and covers. The monks of the Manuscript Culture put great care into preparing and editing these manuscripts, by correcting the spelling of words and removing or replacing a word so that it was a closer match to the spoken word, the monks began the development of the rules for grammar in use today, and influenced the use of the written word in society by putting rules and meaning to how writing will be done. The monks and royalty kept information sacred and only allowed access to a privileged few people, they decided what was proper and what was not properly written and what the words meant.

The Chinese have been using painted symbols to express themselves in the form of collections of written communicates long before books were put together. They have medicinal herbal articles and pharmaceutical recipes dating to well over four thousand years ago. The Chinese developed a wooden block that could be used to print a single symbol and the printing block made it possible to make multiple copies with ease. European explorers brought the Chinese block printing techniques to Europe and the first printing of multiple copies of printed words took place. Before that, China and Korea developed a way to contain several stamp blocks into one set of letters that could be moved by hand to recreate letters and words. In the 1400’s, Gutenberg of Germany used the Chinese printing blocks to develop the printing press from a wine press and one of the first books he printed was the Bible. (Media & Culture, 2009) This began the Gutenberg Revolution because the printing press enabled books to be mass produced and reach readers in different locations.

With the invention of the printing press, community news and cultural traditions quickly reached people who were once isolated and people learned what others were doing elsewhere which created cultural change and diversity as traditions entwined. Europe caught on quickly to the possibilities that could be done with printed material and began the printing of newspapers, academic records and the first encyclopedias. Information began to spread and to be debated, reconsidered because of cultural differences and conflict with age old traditions. Evolution of printed material progressed quickly and the printing press arrived in Colonial American from Europe by the early 1800’s.

During the development of our country the printing press enabled news to be shared and recorded, the nation’s first leaders owned printing presses and printed and censored what they thought was best for the country and what would be printed to influence America’s growing society in becoming the vision they inspired. Freedom of Speech was written into the Constitution of the United States to guarantee a person’s right to speak and protect words. Without the printing press and the ability to show people outside of an area what was happening or what was wanted of them much of history would have been different because people would of continued to thrive in isolated areas never knowing what the rest of the world was doing. The invention of the printed word seals the spoken word as a truth or makes it credible while oral expression of truths or stories can change from one person to another due to a person’s perception.

In due time, the demand for books and local news grew so great that publishing houses were created to handle the rush of people interested. The printing shops required more time printing the actual product and no longer had time to spend with the writer editing and correcting the material beforehand, or afterwards. The start up of publishing houses freed the printer of editing and promotional duties plus gave writers a way to connect with the printing press, and to be promoted to the public. Due to an increasing demand for printed material the publishing houses divided the steps to produce a book into specific jobs so that a number of books could be printed faster and easier.

With this transition came greater influence and diversity of the printed word. The control of what was being printed was left to the editors of publishing houses and they printed whatever was thought to be profitable without regard to the content, soon the public became upset over how the content in some books might influence children and society. Publishers and editors eventually categorized books into different areas of interest and topics which gave the publishers and writers controlled guidelines to use when producing material for the public because it was recognized early that society could be affected by what they read. Some material was deemed inappropriate for children and other material more suitable for students or doctors. Censorship was employed to protect the moral rights of the public and the freedom of speech.

Publishing houses grew with the demand for books and media. Book stores and commercial outlets emerged and now encompass a vast industry devoted to books and magazines. Small printing presses continue to support local publishers but they are largely out shadowed by the main conglomerates of commercial publishing giants, of which, few remain due to the evolving world of media and the convergence through buy outs and merges with other media producers in television, radio and now the internet. Today large companies control the book industry including the book stores catering to readers with a coffee and sandwich atmosphere that allows the public to browse and relax while choosing a book. Book stores, libraries and universities give publishing houses numerous outlets for printed material and an enormous amount of wealth. One major company owns over a third of the book publishers and outlets in the USA and has created some concern over the conglomerates control in the industry.

As the printed word emerged and created magazines, newspapers and books, other media products were developed and adapted using printed words. Just as Telegraph offices used a coded version of the printed word to translate messages from one person to another, television continues to rely on print for scripts and programs that will be transmitted to viewers. Many radio and television shows are the broadcasted version of books or magazine articles. Without books and newspapers much of what is shown on television would not be available.

Printed words make up all of the content of all media products and on the internet any individual can create

printed content in the form of e-books and e-zines without the assistance of publishers. As with all printed work the

author retains ownership until the rights to copy are transferred for publication. With the increasing use of the internet

many newspaper and magazine publishers face downsizing due to subscription losses resulting from readers viewing

content online or on television. As the printed word continues its march with humanity through time, the means by

which words are expressed adapt and encourage growth of new products. The development and convergence of

other media products, such as the internet has made written communications easier but with this ease comes a loss of

the traditional paper and binding just as clay and parchment were replaced by paper so will be many manuscript and

printed products. Newspapers are now offering net access which is giving a rise to digital journalism, and

possibly threatening traditional writers and publishers who would be required to adapt or lose readers that find it

easier and less expensive to go online via cell phone, laptops, IPod and home computers. With so much news and

information available at the touch of a button many people do not feel a need for paper products. In fact, some people feel that it would save trees and the environment if less newspaper and books were printed and more people turned on a digital devise to get information or communications.

Thus, words continue to encourage and support change and understanding. As people evolve so will speech and communications as it has since the first clay table and does from a kindergarteners ABC’s, the world of print is ever changing. From hand written manuscripts and fanciful illustrated rice paper books to glossy multi-colored printed magazines the world of print has evolved along with humanity to integrate the aspects of words into print and electronic communications that transform cultures and time.

©ashawn2009

Reference: Campell, Martin, & Fabos. (2009). Media and Culture. Bedford and St.Martin’s.

“The war proved to be a long and bitter struggle and, for the first time, the effects of war were felt in social and political divisions at home.” This quote sums up the true costs of the war to the authority of the British over their vast subjects upon whom the sun never set. The Second Boer War demonstrated that the outdated British tactics of “formal war” had no place in the new world which the turn of the twentieth century foreshadowed. It was also recognised that the disregard which the British afforded to inter-imperial politics was no longer backed up by a strong, unbreakable empire.

At the beginning of the Second Boer War, the British had not been involved in a large-scale war for about eighty years, since the Napoleonic Era. The British had suffered a humiliating defeat in the battle of Isandluana to the native African Zulu army in the 1870’s, which sparked sporadic military reform. However, the Second Boer War was one of the first which involved an enemy, armed with the most innovative military technologies, who operated in completely alien system, the Commando. The Boer Army was made up simply of Boer farmers, without uniform, who grouped together and went on raids to attack British groups and positions. From the British, the Boers took their provisions; often enough for three days, ammunition and weapons. Once raids were over, the Boers could return to their farms and continue their normal lives, often concealing their military equipment.

Another advantage which the Boers had was their extensive knowledge of the terrain on the Veldt. They had often been called together to protect their towns from raiding Zulus in the past. One British explained their tactics; “It is the practice of the Boers you see to hide behind the rocks and not move until we are right on top of them… then they open fire.” The Boers could manoeuvre, and have swift victories over the stunned British troops on the unique landscape of the Veldt. The Boer tactics worked best to harass the enemy rather than take on the mighty British army head-on in battles or sieges. However, due to both outdated tactics and colossus blunders by the British, the Boers had a series of tactical victories at the battles of Colenso and Spoin Kop.

A third advantage which the Boers had over the British was the innovation of their equipment. The supposedly neutral Germany, was supplying the Boers with the new and vastly superior Mauser Rifle. This gun had a magazine of 6 bullets, as opposed to the British Lee-Enfield which only carried 4 bullets, and of which its accuracy and range were inferior. The Germans had also provided the Boers with the Krupp field gun, a horse-drawn piece of lightweight, accurate artillery. This gun used white powder, which when fired did not produce puffs of black smoke as the heavy inaccurate British cannon did.

All these military advantages which the Boers had over the British meant that the swift destruction of the “upstart Dutchies” turned into a long, drawn out war, which became a catalyst for later guerrilla warfare. The war, in these ways, had vast repercussions for British military culture. It exemplified the inept nature of commissioned, paying for rank, officers, and the need for reform in this area. It also pushed along British military production and was a key factor in the lead-up to the pre-war arms race between the old British Empire and the newly Unified German Empire. Lastly, the Second Boer War displayed how much support the British could muster from their colonies, present and alumni.

During the whole episode of the Second Boer War, the British Empire was examined on a political scale. The throes of the war tested the political and diplomatic skill of King Edward and the Government behind him on the European stage. The political stance of other European Empires, and the fine line of friction between them on the wider issues of African colonisation, led to a very careful political path being taken by Whitehall. The Boers, as mentioned earlier, had the full passive support of the German Empire. The Austrians, Dutch and Danish also passively supported the Boers.

The inflexibility of the British was the first aspect of a sick political power that was highlighted by the Second Boer War. Britain sent one single ultimatum to the Boer, which was rejected, immediately followed by declaration of war. This short tether which the British parliament snapped on, demonstrated the oblivious nature with which they felt they could walk on any nation. The speed with which war was declared also showed that the British had motives other than those of settler rights.

All of the allies of the Transvaal and Orange Free State knew, however, that they would lose the war. However their support was not of the Boer cause, but for the political reason of weakening the British Empire by sowing seeds of doubt in the minds of its subjects. Since Britain defeated the French Republicans in the Napoleonic Wars, Britain had been the major European Imperial powerbroker. Treaties of peace, war, independence or unification, had often fallen at some point into the hands of the British. This political monopoly turned sour when the British were shown up in the “last imperial war”. The Boers had shown that the time of dominance by Britain over the Imperial powers had ended. The time was now right for the emergence of a new and more headstrong power to gain ascendancy in Europe.

The newly unified Germany became a worthy rival for the British. While they had started a century late, the German colonial cause was off to a good start with the political failure of the British in the Boer War. Germany had proved that its military technology was vastly superior to that of the British. This fact, coupled with the loss of respect for Britain over the Boer war, led to uncertainty, followed by an arms race, and climaxing in the horrors of the Great War.