While barrels for small artillery pieces were easily cast as early as the 13th century, most larger cannon and the great bombards were constructed by the hoop-and-stave method. It was not until improved casting techniques and mature foundries were developed that large barrels could be made as single pieces of cast metal, first in iron and bronze, and later still in brass.

The term “cannon” (from the Greek “kanun,” and the Latin “canna”) meant “tube weapon.” It was originally used about any tubular weapon that fired heavy-caliber ordnance, such as stone or cast-iron balls, but using gunpowder as propellant.

A distinct area of artillery development was warfare at sea. Ships’ guns were used to bombard shore positions in support of amphibious operations, and in ship-to-ship or fleet actions to de-mast, demobilize, and sometimes sink enemy ships.

A main effect of the ‘‘artillery revolution’’ in hitting power and accuracy was to reduce the role of fixed fortifications and briefly restore battle to a primary place in war. It did this by forcing defenders to emerge from their fortifications and offer combat in the field, or lose.

Gunpowder rockets were used in warfare in Asia from the early 11th century. There was also experimentation with bamboo-tube gunpowder weapons. By the 13th century the Chinese developed metal tubes that lay fair claim to be the first gunpowder cannon.

The projectiles fired by cannon also changed over time. Where “pots de fer” fired darts with iron or wood “feathers,” the first tubular cannon fired stone balls (the type of stone varied according to availability, from sandstone, to marble, alabaster, and granite).

To kill men in battle outside their fortifications, field artillery was developed. Mobile guns light enough to accompany infantry and cavalry on the march and still be effective weapons, took a long time to develop.

Ottoman sultans boasted a fine artillery train, purchased from Europe or cast in their own foundries with initial assistance from renegade gunsmiths. Ottoman commanders campaigning along or beyond the frontier often left the big guns in reserve.

The term “artillery” originally covered all projectile equipment used in war, including ordinary bows and crossbows. It could even refer to any instrument of war, including swords, pikes, and armor. In ancient and medieval siege warfare torsion and counter-poise projectile weapons (catapults, springalds, and trebuchets) were termed artillery.

A stone throwing engine. The term “bombard” is somewhat arbitrary, but generally referred to the largest guns of the medieval period.