The occurrence of global warming brings about such phenomena as floods, rise of sea level, drought, extinction of some plants and animal species and the disappearance of coral reefs. Some people blame it on deforestation.  However, destruction of trees is not the only cause of global warming. There are other causes too such as too much use of fossil fuel to run vehicles and factories, methane emission from animals, and agricultural and other activities. These activities cause greenhouse gasses of being trapped in the atmosphere instead of going into space. This situation results in the heating of earth’s surface.         

We need to regulate activities that are harmful to the earth’s capability to sustain life. And we need to come up with solutions too. In this article I would like to limit my discussion to tree planting. Plants and trees are important to our existence. But over the past centuries man has destroyed so much forest covers so that this action has contributed to detrimental effects on the environment such as climate change. It is difficult to restore the world’s destroyed rainforests to their original state as a result of logging, urban, industrial and agricultural developments and construction of government infrastructure projects.  We can make up for the lost of our vast rainforest by reforestation or the planting of trees. By doing so, we can mitigate the ill effects of global warming.  Other lasting or long-term benefits of tree planting are as follows:

Trees absorb waste gasses and give us fresh air. To sustain their life, trees and plants undergo a process called photosynthesis on which they use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce glucose which is their food. In this food production process the plants release their waste product which is oxygen, the air that we breath. Without photosynthesis life in this earth will not exist. Through photosynthesis trees and plants maintain the ideal balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the air. Too much or too little of either is harmful to us. Fewer trees mean that there will be excess carbon dioxide that will be emitted into the atmosphere which will contribute to global warming.

Trees enrich the ecosystems in our environment and promote biodiversity. When there are trees they become the habitat of birds, insects and other animals that feed on their leaves, flowers and fruits; and smaller plants co-exist with trees. Thus an ecosystem is developed. Plants, animals and humans need each other in order to survive. If the earth were to lose all of its forest covers, most plants and animals would become extinct.

Trees help prevent floods and soil erosion.  During rain some of the raindrops are collected on the leaves so that some amount of water does not fall on the ground. Later these raindrops are evaporated into the air. Leaves also serve as cushion to lighten the impact of water that is falling on the ground, and this prevents soil erosion. In addition, the roots of the trees absorb some water in the ground during rain thus reducing the amount of water on the ground surface.  Roots of trees also hold soil so that it is not easily eroded during rain and cause landslides. Lack of trees causes soil to be washed away into the water course causing sediments to be deposited in low lying channels which overflow during heavy rains.

Trees help provide us clean water. The roots of the trees absorb rain water thus storing supply of fresh and clean ground water. In addition the ability of the roots to hold soil prevents soil erosion which causes sediments to accumulate in the water channels.  Sediments carried by rainwater pollute rivers or creeks. Trees therefore help make the water in the rivers clear and clean.

Trees beautify our environment and boost our wellbeing. Garbage in our backyard and in the landfills is eyesore. On the other hand the view of plants and trees is aesthetically pleasant. The sight of green surrounding somehow protects us from the glare of sunlight. Green surrounding is associated with life. The sight of trees and other plants at our house together with the birds and insects that hang around them makes our surroundings lively and beautiful. Trees provide shade for us and moderate the heat of the sun in summer. 

We know the benefits that trees give us. The right time to plant them is now. We can do it in our own backyard or along the city streets or in wildlife conservation area. Planting trees in a wide area requires coordinated effort with non-government organization, government agencies and civic groups. We need trees and plant for our survival and for the protection of our mother earth.                                               

Multinational National Corporations help assist the creation of international challenges caused by environmental problems by going around their home countries environmental policies in developing countries that lack similar policies because the people in these countries are really eager to have the work. OPEC actively blocks binding limits on the carbon emissions (Peace, 234). The United Nations created two bodies that help monitor environmental conditions based on the idea of the Common Heritage of Mankind. The UN Economic and Social Council’s Environmental Program put into place a global network of monitors to help track environmental problems (Pease, 224). International Organizations such as the UN and NATO respond to conflicts caused by a the lack of resources in developing countries and will likely act as resources are diminished (Klare, 197).

International Organizations and the Protection of Worldwide Biodiversity

Worldwide biodiversity is protected by several international treaties that set aside preserves needed by waterfowl, limits trade in endangered species, restricts ocean dumping and oil dumping, as well as committing sovereign states to the protection of habitats, species and habitats (Pease, 227). International nonprofit organizations like Greenpeace monitor the activities of corporations, states and individuals with a history of violations while others like the World Wildlife Fund and Nature Conservancy use funds to buy habitat and develop related research. The International Convention on Whaling funds research, establishes restrictions on whaling, and monitors whale populations worldwide (Pease, 243)

International Organizations and The Ozone Hole

The hole in the ozone is being reduced thanks to the Montreal Protocol signed by 191 states that limits the use of CFCs known to deplete the ozone layer(Pease, 227). The UN Global Environmental Facility was created to help developing countries deal with the costs of managing ozone depletion, the loss of biodiversity and ocean pollution and is provided funding from the World Bank and from the UN Development and Environmental fund.

International Organizations and Global Warming

Many manufacturers are designing their products to be more energy efficient or are building Cleantech products like Suntech Power Holdings and General Electric or buying green products for distribution like Wal-Mart(Friedman, 33-34) help fight global warming by moving to renewable, sustainable energy sources away from carbon producing energy sources. Research has helped to identify industries, alternatives, and evidence related the human contributions to global warming. Although the Kyoto Protocal has not been signed, many countries are following the established guidelines and are actively working to reduce carbon emissions as shown in the Bali Road Map (Pease, 233). Nonprofit international organizations like Earthwatch sponsor global warming research.

International Organizations and Reforestation

Nonprofit organizations like the Jane Goodall Institute help countries like Tanzania replant forests and use satellite data to document forestry losses. Multinational Corporations like Weyerhauser have been prime movers in sustainable practices for the timber industry. Reforestration issues are often tracked under the auspices of international global warming research and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

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International Organizations and Desertification

Desertification is also tracked under the auspices of international global warming research and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change as well as by the UN Conference to Combat Desertification. This year is the International Year of Forests, with National Desertification Day landing on June 17th.

The main cause of rain forests is the felling of tress due to timber demand. The timber resources are unsustainably managed where the forests exist. Many wealthy companies use this vital resources in an unsustainable manner due to lack of controls by governments. As well, the landless people occupy these areas and there fore no avenue to rejuvanate the forests. This may be due to population growth in these countries as well. Unfortunately the rain forests exist in countries where they lack knowledge of rain forest management and they do not control effectively to protect the forests.

Another important cause is mining. These countries have many valuable mineral resources for local and international companies. The mining practices are not enviornmentally sound particualrly due to slack enviornmental controls and regulation by the government due to development pressures and corruption. These activities polllute the environment and there fore the forests die off as well they are lost due to the clearance of forets for mining purposes in an unsustainable manner. These two major causes are the main ones for the destruction of rain forests ina rapid manner than ever before.

The consequences ar economic as well as enviornmental as well as lost heritage and loss of biodiversity values. It also a resource because these countries depnd on Tourism as people go to these countries to see rare animals and bird species. if rain forests are lost then they also will be lost because rainforests are vital for the biodiversity in these countries. In addition rain forests have many rare species of plants which can be a vital source of medicine for many incurable diseases particularly in the developing world. Most important as discussed above the rainforests acts like lungs to control green house gases as they produce a carbon sink in the world eco system. If they are lost then it is very difficult to control  green house gases in the atmosphere in an adequate manner. The effects of green house gases affects all human beings as well they affect the people in developing countries more severely than people in the developed world because they are not economically power ful to minimize negative effects of global warming and may produce more unstable world then ever before for the next generation.

As discussed  above, it is vital that international bodies, governments and non governmental bodies and environmental organizations put plans and policies to protect these vital resources in a sustainable manner so that we can have a more richer world than a poorer world in the future.

Pakistan supports two species of bears i.e. Black bear and Brown bear. Two sub-species of Black bear are recognized which are Himalayan Black bear and Baluchistan Black bear. The Brown Bear and the Himalayan Black bear inhabit high mountain region in the North-West Frontier Province, Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Northern Areas. Himalayan black bear is restricted to Himalayan moist and dry temperate forest and adjoining sub-alpine scrub, while the Brown bear inhabits drier sub-alpine and alpine meadows of the cold desert region. Baluchistan black bear has a limited distribution in Baluchistan Province.

Both the species of bears are threatened due to habitat degradation, killing of bears in defense of livestock and crop and for bear parts having use in traditional medicines. The most alarming threat to the bears comes from persecution of bear cubs for use in bear baiting and for street dancing. Hundreds of bear cubs are reportedly captured every year for this purpose. It is understood that in most cases the mother bear protecting the cubs is killed by the poachers.

BAN ON BEAR BAITING

International animal welfare organizations became very active in late 1980s and launched campaign against bear baiting in Pakistan. World Society for Protection of Animals (WSPA) was in the fore-front. This campaign received overwhelming support in North America, Europe, Africa and Australia. Conservationists in Pakistan also supported the campaign not only because of the cruelty of the sport but also for the reason that the sport was a persistent threat to the survival of bears in the wild. The Government of Pakistan through administrative order imposed a ban on bear baiting which was widely publicized and implemented.

IMPLEMENTATION PROBLEMS

The complete and effective implementation of ban on bear baiting however posed technical problems. It was difficult to confiscate the bears on the first hand due to non-availability of trained bear handlers in the provincial wildlife department. Secondly it was not possible to release the confiscated bear into wild due to following reasons:

• The domesticated bears do not have teeth and claws and thus become incapable of gathering food and protect themselves against other predators in the wild. They are thus totally dependent upon human beings for food.
• They have become so familiar with human beings that while roaming free they can inflict injuries to people and cause panic and harassment.
• The bear habitat has shrunk considerably by loss of vegetative cover and expansion of human population. Any attempt of reintroduction of these bears to the wild is apt to fail because the domesticated bears will return to human settlement for food.

THE BEAR CENTER

Being cautious of these facts, the Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province requested World Society for Protection of Animals (WSPA) in 1991 for assistance in establishment of a bear park/center to house the confiscated bears. The bear park could also be used as a recreation cum education center for the people to promote conservation awareness, besides sending a signal to bear keepers that keeping of bears for bear baiting will no more be tolerated.

The WSPA expressed its willingness in 1999 to establish a bear park in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province. Welcoming the offer the Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province allocated a 12 acre piece of land at Kund at the confluence of river Kabul with Indus for construction of bear center. It was agreed that WSPA will construct the entire facility, train the department staff and run the facility for one year after which it will be handed over to the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Wildlife Department with all assets.

The WSPA has completed the construction work of bear center, which will be inaugurated soon.

The Wildlife Departments all over Pakistan are seriously concerned about the long-term survival of bear population in the wild. The bear center, although located in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa will provide services to all the Provinces and Federating Units. The objective of the center will be met only and only when all the Wildlife Departments play their role in confiscation of bears irrespective of the origin of these animals.

LEGAL ISSUES

The Baluchistan black bear is on the verge of extinction and is included in the Baluchistan Wildlife Act as a “Protected Animal”. The Act does not mention the Himalayan black bear and Brown bear. Thus, legally, the Baluchistan Wildlife Department has no legal tool to confiscate these two species or to have any management intervention to control their poaching or trade. The legal power for protection of these species can be easily obtained through a notification of Provincial government under the provisions of Wildlife Act including the species in the Third schedule of the Act. The notification will be an administrative order under the Act and will not involve promulgation of an Ordinance for amendment in the Act. The whole process should not take more than 10 days. It will be in the interest of Baluchistan Province itself to provide a blanket protection to all the species of bears so that the prospects of survival of Baluchistan black bear are enhanced.

Sindh Province does no harbour any species of bear. Therefore, Sindh Wildlife Act is silent on these species. Since most of bear baiting takes place in Sindh and which is also a port province, Sindh Wildlife Department has to play a vital role in protection of bears. Although the department is making its best efforts to control bear baiting under general directive from Federal Government and Provincial Government, it is highly essential that all the species/sub-species of bears in Pakistan are included in the Third schedule of Sindh Wildlife act to provide them legal protection and to legalize the efforts of the department regarding bear protection. The Government of Sindh can do so by issuing a notification ordering inclusion of these species in the schedule of “Protected Animals” under the provision of Sindh Wildlife Act. This process of notification is not lengthy and should not involve more than 10 days.

There are no wild bears in Punjab. However, due to historic presence of black bear in Murree hills, the Punjab Wildlife Act provides the status of “Protected Animal” to the Black bear. The Act however is silent about brown bear. Most of the bear baiting and bear dancing events take place in Punjab. The province also provides a transit route to the bears from the North to Sindh and Baluchistan Provinces. Punjab Wildlife Department therefore has a crucial role in bear conservation and control on bear baiting. Despite the fact that Punjab Wildlife Department is actively implementing a ban on bear baiting, there is a need to impart legal protection status to these animals. The Punjab Wildlife Act has a provision that the government can include any wild animal in any of the schedules to the Act by notification in the official gazette. In exercise of these powers, the Government can include brown bear in the schedule of “Protected Animals” to the Wildlife Act. The inclusion does not involve amendment in the Wildlife Act and therefore can be issued without reference to legislatures or resorting to an Ordinance. Availability of this legal tool to Punjab Wildlife Department will enhance its potential to overcome the problems of bear baiting.

Brown bear and Baluchistan Black bear are Protected Animal under Khyber Pakhtunkhwa  Wildlife Act of 1975. Himalayan black bear however is included in the schedule of game animals and can be hunted on a big game licence and special permit. No hunting permit however has been issued so far to any one and thus the animal practically enjoys protection. A proposal has been submitted to the Provincial Government to include Himalayan Black bear in the Schedule of Protected Animal to provide freedom of action to the Wildlife Department in anti bear baiting and anti-poaching campaign.

It is assumed that both the species of bears are protected under the Wildlife Acts of Northern Areas and Azad Jammu and Kashmir.

OPERATIONALIZATION OF BEAR CENTE

Operationalization of Kund bear center in khyber pakhtunkhwa, will involve several actions explained hereunder:

 1.                  Identification of bear location

Wildlife Departments of all the provinces, Northern Areas and Azad Jammu and Kashmir will be expected to keep a close vigil on bear baiting events and trafficking of bear cubs. Location of bear baiting and all bear cubs will be identified through formal and informal means. Assistance of NGOs like Habitat Integrated Pakistan and WSPA should also be sought in this regard.

 2.       Confiscation of bears and bear cubs

Assuming that all the Provincial Governments, Northern Areas and AJK will declare the bear species as Protected Animal well in time, the concerned Wildlife Department will proceed to confiscate the bear/bear cubs. There is likelihood of non-cooperation of bear owners in confiscation process. This will require the availability of bear handling skill with the department. The Wildlife Departments should therefore arrange to train 2-3 persons in bear handling by attaching them with bear owners for a few weeks. Alternately the bear center should arrange short training courses in bear handling techniques. Trained personnel can then be used for confiscation of bears.

 3.       Transportation of bears to bear center

     Confiscated bears may be lying at different places in various Provinces. The Provincial Wildlife Departments may either arrange themselves for transportation of bears to the bear center or inform Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Wildlife Department of the location of confiscated bears and ask it to transport the bears to the center. However the concerned Wildlife Department will be responsible for all legal and logistic support for transportation within the provincial jurisdiction. Cost of transportation of the bears to the bear center should be borne by the bear center. Since the handling of bears during confiscation and transportation is a risky job, handlers may be trained in immobilization techniques for bears, and be provided with related equipment/chemicals. The Provinces are expected to build their own capacity in immobilization techniques, however till the time such capacity is built the bear center will provide necessary skills and equipment.

The Bear Center has the capacity of housing 25-30 bears. therefore the khyber pakhtunkhwa wildlife suggested that It should receive only those bears, which are involved in bear baiting. Dancing bears should continue to be in custody of owners. However these bears should be registered and marked with permanent collars under a time bound programme to safeguard against any future addition to the number of bears in captivity. Microchips can also be used for identification of these bears.

Courtesy: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Wildlife Department Pakistan

Human land use practices are one of the main factors, affecting the global ecosphere, and which are driving change on a global level (UN. 2010). A common measure on the state of the ecosphere is the state of global biodiversity. As much as 25% of the total land area is undergoing degradation and it has been estimated that 12% of all birds, 21% of mammals, 28% of reptiles, 30% of amphibians, 35% of invertebrates and 70% of all plants found within the ecosphere are threatened with extinction (UN. 2010). This is mainly as a result of the climate change associated with global warming (UN. 2010).

Global warming is directly linked to unsustainable land use practices and human behaviour as well as a number of direct and ultimate drivers (UN. 2010). Global warming is considered a direct driver, however, other direct drivers include habitat change and fragmentation, introduction of alien species, over-exploitation of natural recourses, and finally diseases spread with the aid of humans (Cundill G. 2010). Ultimate drivers include demographic, scientific and technological, as well as economic drivers (Cundill G. 2010). Not only will global warming affect climate, but other factors such as ocean currents will also be affected. It must be noted, that similar patters to global warming have occurred within the past, however humans have sped up this natural process. Global trends show an increase in pressure as a result of human activities, accompanied by an increase in global responses, although a sharp decrease in the global state of biodiversity and as a result the ecosphere has been observed between 1970 and 2010 (Butchart et al. 2010, Science). This is a clear indication that the current human responses are relatively ineffective when dealing with global change.

Associated with the increasing global human population comes greater demands for food recourses, and as a result people become more reliant on natural recourses, and agriculture (Cundill G. 2010). This results in large-scale global habitat conversion, and fragmentation of natural aquatic habitats (Cundill G. 2010). The increase in reliance on the Earth’s natural recourses increases human vulnerability, which further increases the reliance of humans on the ecosphere thus creating positive feedback (Cundill G. 2010).

Drivers of change to the ecosphere:

The state of the ecosphere has been fluctuating within the past driven by factors, many of which extrinsic to humans (Cundill G. 2010). Such extrinsic factors include tectonic movements, extra-terrestrial events, and climate change (Cundill G. 2010). At present, many of the factors leading to change are anthropogenic, and can be divided into two distinct categories, these being direct and ultimate drivers of change (Cundill G. 2010). Direct drivers include factors such as habitat change and fragmentation, introduction of competing alien species, over-exploitation of natural resources by human, disease, and climate change (Cundill G. 2010). These direct drivers decrease the state of biodiversity and as a result the ecosphere directly (Cundill G. 2010). Many of these drivers have anthropogenic links, which will be discussed. Three major ultimate drivers exist, these being demographic, science and technology, and finally economic drivers, although others do exist, examples of which include, short political horizons (Cundill G. 2010). These drivers affect the state of biodiversity and as a result the ecosphere in some way, however this in not directly. Examples will be discussed.

Direct Drivers:

Habitat loss and Fragmentation:

Habitat loss and fragmentation is one of the leading causes of global change, in the form of biodiversity loss, and as a result to the ecosphere (UN. 2010). This is once again linked to the large and ever increasing human population. An increasing human population has lead to an increased need for agricultural land, resulting in an increased area of fragmented land (UN. 2010). Fragmented habitats are able to support smaller populations of native species, further increasing their vulnerability. 50% of boreal forests, 25% of tropical forests, and 66% of the worlds rivers have been fragmented due to an increased demand for agricultural land (Cundill G. 2010). This has lead to the increased vulnerability and the near extinction of many bird, mammal, and fish species (Cundill G. 2010). Figure 1 below shows the estimated number of species lost when compared deforestation rates by the year 2100. It becomes obviously clear from figure 1 that the greater the area of land that undergoes deforestation, the more species will be lost. Thus increasing human vulnerability. Deforestation also affects evapotranspiration, which affects the global energy budget.

Introduction of Alien Species:

Globalisation has resulted in an increase in trade (Cundill G. 2010). Trade has assisted in the increase in non-native, or alien species found worldwide. Many of these species do not pose a threat to native species, however many others do (Cundill G. 2010). These species may be intentionally or unintentionally introduced, and in many cases, the effects of their introduction remain unknown (Cundill G. 2010). Water Hyacinth flourishes in man-made lakes and was introduced to many different countries as a popular flowering plant (The Encyclopaedia of Earth. 2010). Hyacinth forms a floating platform of high density above the surface of the water, extracting nutrients from the water, and carbon directly from the atmosphere (The Encyclopaedia of Earth. 2010). 50 countries on 5 continents have had outbreaks of Hyacinth, resulting in increasing numbers of deaths as a result of diseases such as malaria (The Encyclopaedia of Earth. 2010). Water Hyacinth floats on the surface of lakes, reproduces rapidly, and results in limit to the amount of light entering a lake (The Encyclopaedia of Earth. 2010). With no light, plants are unable to photosynthesise, decreasing oxygen levels, resulting in the death of many aquatic organisms (The Encyclopaedia of Earth. 2010). The water often becomes stagnant allowing suitable breeding sites for disease vectors such as Mosquitoes. In many of the areas affected by Water Hyacinth, a second alien species was introduced, this being the Hyacinth Weevil Neochetina eichhorniae (The Encyclopaedia of Earth. 2010). This species actively feeds on water hyacinth, and average plant coverage was drastically reduced (The Encyclopaedia of Earth. 2010). Another example of how trade, linked to an increase in globalisation, has lead to an increase in the number of alien species found in countries world wide is the use of ballast water in balancing large ships. These ships balance themselves by filling their large ballast tanks with water, until such a point that the boat is balanced. Thousands of different organisms enter the ship with this water. At the ships destination, this water is pumped out again; releasing these, now alien species, into a foreign environment. 

Water Hyacinth, native to South America, was introduced into Rwanda as a popular water plant by colonial Dutch settlers (The Encyclopaedia of Earth. 2010). It was first sighted in Lake Victoria in 1988, after which it became a common sight (The Encyclopaedia of Earth. 2010). Within 10 years it had spread along most shorelines in thick mats covering an estimated 200km² (The Encyclopaedia of Earth. 2010). Attempts to control its spread involved the introduction of Hyacinth Weevil to the area, and by 2005 the lake appeared to be clear of Hyacinth (The Encyclopaedia of Earth. 2010). Unusually high rainfall patterns in 2006 lead to the introduction of agricultural run-off into the lake (appearing brown in figure 2 below), and led to a second outbreak in Water Hyacinth (The Encyclopaedia of Earth. 2010). The figurative comparison between December 2005 and 2006 seen in figure 2 below show the extent of the outbreak in 2006. The introduction of Water Hyacinth and the outbreaks that followed have affected tourism, fisheries, hydroelectric schemes, and transport within Rwanda and neighbouring countries (The Encyclopaedia of Earth. 2010).

Over-Exploitation of Natural recources:

Humans have harvested recourses from the ecosphere throughout history (Cundill G. 2010). With an increasing human population, there is an increase in the amount of recourses harvested, and at a point where the amount harvested exceeds the natural recovery/regeneration rate this becomes unsustainable. At such a point, degradation of habitats occurs (Cundill G. 2010). Harvesting of natural recourses may be split into two drivers, these being commercial exploitation, and recreational demand (Cundill G. 2010). Commercial exploitation has the greatest effect on the ecosphere and has resulted in crashes of populations of species of Fish, Whales and Rhino (Cundill G. 2010). Recreation demand has resulted in the increased vulnerability of many organisms as a result for example, of their sale, examples of which include the increased vulnerability of plant species such as the species of Cycad found within the ecosphere (Cundill G. 2010).

Disease:

Disease is one of the ever-present factors within every biome, however the spread of diseases/viruses/syndromes/etc such as the Canine Distemper Virus has been facilitated by globalisation (Cundill G. 2010).  The means in which this is achieved come in a wide variety of ways, however the Canine Distemper Virus was spread from the Seals of northern Russia to the Lions of the Serengeti as a result of high densities of native dogs (Cundill G. 2010). This disease resulted in Lion population numbers decreasing within East Africa by 20%. Climate change is also predicted to shift the current ranges of many diseases, bringing diseases in contact with many new potential hosts who may not have developed immunity (Cundill G. 2010).

Global Warming:

The final direct driver of change is climate change and global warming. Despite happening over a long period of time, this driver is predicted to have the greatest potential change, driven by human activities (Cundill G. 2010). Many different factors such as the average dates of bird nesting periods, bird migratory patterns, and the northward expansion of many species’ habitats, have indicated climate change. Climate change and global warming do not affect species equally, and the most vulnerable of species appear to be those limited by ranges, those that are host specific, and finally those that have reduced mobility (Cundill G. 2010). All direct and ultimate drivers ultimately lead to global warming and climate change, however the main cause of global warming and the climate change associated with it, is the burning of fossil fuels as an energy source (Cundill G. 2010). The burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gasses such as carbon which drive the greenhouse effect. Climate change has been predicted to have a 30% reduction in species, which would ideally limit options, and increase human vulnerability (Cundill G. 2010).

Since the industrial revolution in the early 18th centaury, there has been a large increase in the total green house gas emissions, mainly in the form of carbon dioxide, per annum as a result of the burning on fossil fuels. The burning of coil, oil and other fossil fuels are one of the main sources of non-solar energy used by humans since the industrial revolution. The emissions from the burning of fossil fuels have effected the atmospheric composition greatly and have been one of the main drivers of global climate change and global warming. As the solar energy enters the Earths atmosphere it heats up the surface of the Earth. Long wave radiation, in the form of heat, warms the surrounding atmosphere from the surface of the Earth upwards. The presence of greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide, ozone, chlorofluorocarbons, methane etc within the atmosphere retains much of the heat within the atmosphere, causing an increase in global temperatures. This has had an effect on the rainfall patterns worldwide as well as warming of the ocean currents, and as a result the melting of the polar ice caps and a rise in the sea level.

Ultimate Drivers:

Demographic:

Ultimate drivers of change include those drivers related to scientific, technological, demography and the economy (Cundill G. 2010). In the past 40 years, the human population has doubled, and it is predicted that this will continue to increase (Cundill G. 2010). The human population is estimated to reach 8.9 billion by 2050; however this growth is predicted to be mainly in developing countries such as countries in Asia, Africa and the Middle East rather than developed countries and is considerably lower than the previously predicted value of 9.4 billion (Gore, A. 1992).. In many instances there has been a decline in population growth in many countries, so much so that their relative populations are decreasing (Cundill G. 2010). With an increasing human population, so comes a greater demand for agricultural land, which leads to an increased area of fragmented natural bush (Cundill G. 2010). An ever-increasing human population would also mean that there is an increased demand for energy (Cundill G. 2010).

Economic:

Between 1950 and 2000 the global economic activity increased 7 fold, this being accompanied by the doubling of the average income per person (Cundill G. 2010). With an increased income, so there is a greater demand for many material goods, along with a change in diet from mainly starch-based foods to high protein diets (Cundill G. 2010). With an increase in the number of people consuming a high protein diet, there is an increased demand for farming of domestic animals such as cattle. This would result in the conversion of large areas of land needed for agricultural purposes (Cundill G. 2010). Fish would also be harvested at a larger scale, possible leading to the increased vulnerability of many species. An example of the effect of an increased economic activity having potential disadvantages is the milk produced and sold within Jamaica (Cundill G. 2010). A large proportion of the annual income within the Jamaican economy came from the export of milk to both the UK and Europe in the recent past (Cundill G. 2010). As a result of the introduction of farmer subsidies within Europe, it is cheaper for the Jamaican people to import powdered milk from Europe than to produce milk locally (Cundill G. 2010). Excess milk produced in Jamaica is now used for irrigation purposes rather than sold (Cundill G. 2010).

Science and Technology:

Science and technology have proved both advantageous and disadvantageous in combating change to the ecosphere. With the understanding of chemistry, genetics, and the use of both genetic engineering and chemicals, there has been a major increase in per hectare yields of all the major crops in the last 40 years (Cundill G. 2010). Examples include; the yield from global Wheat crops has increased by 208%, and Maize by 157% in the last 40 years (Cundill G. 2010). The increase in yields per hectare has meant smaller amount of land are required for agricultural purposes to achieve a greater yield (Cundill G. 2010). Despite the benefits of science and technology in increasing agricultural yields, there have been a number of unintended outcomes (Cundill G. 2010). The use of inorganic fertilizers and other agricultural chemicals has resulted in the eutrophication of many fresh water systems (Cundill G. 2010).

The construction of large cities decreases the Earths albedo, creating what are known as urban heat islands. This is as a result of the darker surfaces of many of the buildings within cities, as well as the decrease in vegetative cover. This affects the global heat budget by increasing the amount of absorption of solar energy and as a result increasing temperatures on a local scale.

The Gaia Hypothesis:

Gaia defined Earth as a complex adaptive system with negative feedbacks and as a result homeostasis (Ogle M. 2010). The composition of Earth’s atmosphere is relatively constant, although not at chemical equilibrium (Ogle M. 2010). The presence of plants within the biosphere has resulted in 21% of the atmospheric composition being Oxygen (Ogle M. 2010). Without plants, the atmosphere would be dominated mainly by carbon, and nitrogen, with some hydrogen (Ogle M. 2010). The presence of oxygen within the atmosphere maintains a non-equilibrium state (Ogle M. 2010). Earth is also resilient with respect to factors such as temperature; however temperature usually remains in a relatively narrow range (Ogle M. 2010). The burning of fossil fuels alters the atmospheric composition resulting in positive feedback (Ogle M. 2010). The increase in temperatures as a result of global warming due to the change in atmospheric composition has increased the temperature of many of the oceans (Ogle M. 2010). Oceans store approximately 93% of the total carbon dioxide found within the ecosphere (Ogle M. 2010). When water is cooled it takes up more carbon dioxide, and as it is heated, this gets released into the atmosphere (Ogle M. 2010). With an increase in mean annual temperatures as a result of global warming, more carbon dioxide, one of the major green house gasses, is released into the atmosphere further aiding in increasing temperatures through the green house effect (Ogle M. 2010).

Conclusion:

Humans have, and continue to pose the greatest threat out of all the species on Earth, to the ecosphere. Unsustainable use of the Earths recourses, as well as human behaviour and land use practices, has resulted in an ever-increasing threat to the ecosphere. Although many processes such a climate change do occur naturally, their rate of occurrence has been increased as a result of human activities. Many species are becoming increasingly threatened as a result of climate change and habitat fragmentation. The total land area is predicted to decrease, as the sea level rises, due to the melting of the polar ice caps, bought about by the increasing temperature as a result of global warming. The constant increase in the human population has resulted in a greater amount of habitat fragmentation, as a result of the greater demand for agricultural land. This not only increases the vulnerability of many species, but decreases annual carbon sequestration, aiding in the increase in atmospheric carbon, one of the major greenhouse gasses. All of the factors mentioned above, along with many others, have aided in the increased vulnerability of human beings, and a shift to a greater unsustainable reliance on the biosphere due to a decrease in option values and a greater need for land area to meet the increasing demands of an ever increasing human population.

If it wasn’t for life on Earth, there would be no oxygen in the atmosphere, and as a result Earth would not have a life supporting function. The presence of plants within the ecosphere maintains a non-equilibrium state of the atmosphere, as a direct result of the release of oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis. Without oxygen the atmosphere would be dominated mainly by carbon and nitrogen, however some hydrogen would be present. Through processes such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation etc, humans are degrading the life supporting function of Earth.

References:

Butchart et al. 2010. Global Biodiversity: Indicators in recent declines. Science Express 328:5982 (pg 1164-1168)

Cundill G. 2010. Lecture notes. Department of Environmental Science, Rhodes University.

Ehrlich, P. and Erhlich, A. 1990. The Population Explosion. New York: Simon and Schuster.

The Encyclopaedia of Earth. 2010. Lake Victoria. [online]. Available at < http://www.eoearth.org/article/Lake_Victoria>. Accessed on 1st September 2010.

Gore, A. 1992. Earth in the Balance. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Ogle M. 2010. The Gaia Theory. [Onlile]. Available at <http://www.gaiatheory.org/>  accessed on 1st September 2010.

Section2Group3. Date unknown. Deferestation in Brazil. University of Michigan.

UN. 2010. Official video of the International Year of Biodiversity. United Nations

I begin with this video that made me smile but the question stands: Are you against the use of fur coats?

Well, I’m not so much.

I’m against it’s use if they are made with furs of animals belonging to endangered species  or if there is cruelty in the way animals are killed.

In countries with very low temperatures during winter, I think it’s not a luxury to wear fur coats, since it´s industry is well regulated to prevent animal rights abuses.

As in everything in life, the main problem is those who try to earn lot’s of money by selling what is not legal and those who pay for it to show their fortune and status.

I think that animal rights campaigns should focus not so much on furs use but on the way animals are treated and killed around the world for being used on anything that can make fortunes.

We cry against fur industries and we forget about all other animal products like ivory, tiger balm, whales amber, crocodile skin, turtles carapaces and much more.

I think naked PETA ads are a great marketing way for celebrities and continue not to harm those that do not care with biodiversity and cruelty.

And to end with this question just another bizarre (but sustainable) use of animal furs: sweaters made with pets hair.

One more smile, please!

Click here to start making money from your writing.

The Mediterranean is one of the most studied seas in the world. Although “bet on the existence of previous assessments 8000-12000 species, new census of marine life, carried on more recent studies, has located about 17,000 species.

Many other species have not yet been discovered, consider the study’s authors, published in the online scientific journal PLoS One.

This biodiversity is so rich but exposed to the many hazards that manifest themselves more strongly than in other Mediterranean seas on Earth.

Aid from the UN or foreign countries to address global poverty has proved ineffective and in many cases had a detrimental effect

    First of all, the UN has no way of positively ensuring that its aid will go to its intended targets. The developing countries to which aid is sent lack the transparency and accountability to ensure that the aid goes to the intended recipients. Knack and Brautigam, political scientists, measured the quality of governance in countries that are dependent on foreign aid and found in January of 2004 that quote “there is a robust statistical relationship between high aid levels in Africa and deteriorations in governance.” end quote (Deborah Brautigam and Knack, “Foreign Aid, Institutions and Governance in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Economic Development and Cultural Change). Furthermore, according to Dambisa Moyo, who has a PhD in economics at Oxford University, “No country on Earth has ever achieved long‐term growth and reduced poverty in a meaningful way by relying on aid.” and she also said “Study, after study, after study (many of them, the donors’ own) have shown that, after many decades and many millions of dollars, aid has had no appreciable impact on development.” According to her, foreign aid perpetuates the cycle of poverty and hinders economic growth. Clearly, funds from foreign countries and the UN directed towards addressing global poverty will be ineffective at best.

Attempts at global poverty reduction will be ineffective if environmental concerns are not addressed
    According to a United Nations University Conference on desertification, if current desertification rates continue, Africa will only be able to feed 25% of its population by 2025. This means that if desertification is not addressed soon, food supply will fall, food prices in Africa will rise, and thus hunger and poverty will only increase. Any results that may have been achieved in terms of poverty reduction would be rendered negligible. Moreover, according to the Institute for Environmental Decisions in Zurich, quote, “Agriculture is particularly vulnerable to climatic change.” “In most developing countries the agricultural sector still employs most of the population and adds substantially to the countries’ GDP (e.g. up to 59 per cent in Guinea‐Bissau; WRI, 2003). Reductions in crop yields could lead to famine and undernourishment.” end quote. Even if poverty is eliminated, agriculture will fall in these developing countries due to desertification and climate change, resulting in economic failure, and the people will plummet deeper and deeper into undernourishment and poverty. Clearly, any results brought about by reducing poverty will be rendered negligible if the environmental concerns are not first addressed.

The current rate of biodiversity loss demands immediate concern
   
    The Environment News Service noted in a report that quote, “The current extinction rate is now approaching 1,000 times the background rate and may climb to 10,000 times the background rate during the next century, if present trends continue. At this rate, one-third to two-thirds of all species of plants, animals, and other organisms would be lost during the second half of the next century.” end quote.

    There are dire consequences that arise from this extraordinary rate of biodiversity loss. According to the Australian Department of Environment, if biological diversity is diminished, the functioning of ecosystems is put at risk. It elaborates that among many other things, biodiversity helps protects our water resources and soil formation and protection, contributes to climate stability, and helps ecosystems recover from disasters. It describes that all the life on this earth is so closely interrelated that in general a large loss of species would be destructive for all life. And finally, according to the Convention on Biological Diversity, at least 40 percent of the world’s economy and 80 per cent of the needs of the poor are derived from biological resources. For the human race, especially the poor, and all the life on this Earth, environmental protection is of absolute urgency.

    From all the reasons stated, it is obvious that environmental protection must be prioritized over global poverty reduction.

            On the other side of this Slash and Burn may in fact not be so helpful. In tropical rain forests because of their high humidity and their heat make the ground very infertile. Using slash and burn you take a big tree and you spread it’s nutrients amongst the ground. Even though it sounds like a great idea really you are taking away of the grounds nutrients more then you are helping it. In tropical rain forests the plants have adapted to the ground and henceforth are good at storing small amounts of nutrients inside of themselves. So when burned the nutrients quickly get stolen and are washed away. In the end you are left with dead almost worthless ground. This also goes hand in hand with Global Warming. By taking away these trees and leaving the ground worthless so that trees can not grow anymore. The large carbon tissues in this giant tropical forest trees is put to waist and we have more carbon pressure in the atmosphere.

            In truth Slash and burn can be positive and not harmful to the environment in different habitats. Although in a Tropical Rain Forest it can take away nutrients and kill off many endangered species. When slash and burn can be practiced in small fertile parts though it can be very productive. It will go through this one way cycle where it will help grow plants and not affect the environment and population around it. In conclusion to this subject: although Slash and Burn is mostly considered harmful biologically it can be productive when used correctly.

 Besides it affecting the ground it also affects the air. With the great amount of smoke let off of a large fire it can pollute the air, with some runaway fires expanding as large as 400 x 600 km. As I just mentioned before, many people that do this do not know how to handle fire so you get “runaway fires”. There has been a surprising amount of runaway fires from this. These fires, obviously, can be much more harmful then most fires because, it has the same affects as it does on the small field but amplified. There are always other factors like; we may be trapping animals in these large fires but, what if we accidentally trap another human in the fire. We really need to be smart when it comes down to it. To not be reckless and really understand what we are doing and get it planned out so we do not hurt the environment or ourselves for that matter.

Then we have many people that rely on Slash and Burn for their food so that they may live. 3 to 5 million people practice Slash and Burn to get their food. Although there is this high number of people using it as a food source does that justify it? Perhaps the fact that there are so many people using it that just shows how it is destroying the environment even more? It comes down to a fight from ecologists and farmers. The ecologists would argue that Slash and Burn is killing special and unique species and destroying their homes. While farmers would argue they were not worried about the animals really just worried about their own survival.

In conclusion I would like to state my opinion on the whole matter. It sounds like to me perhaps the Slash and Burn practice is not all that bad. Sure it kills environments but really that’s just when it is not properly used. As people need it to survive, so they can eat, I can not see a realistic way we can stop it in a good manner. In the end it comes down to really it is a harmful to habitats and species. The decision is all with us to decide whether we need to figure out a way  to get the starving farmers food sufficiently so they do not need to slash and burn or perhaps for the farmers to come up with a more environment friendly practice. Whatever we choose, if we ever do, there most likely will still be people that use the slash and burn. Really we just need to control ourselves and be careful what we do.  

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Unfortunately, forests are being cleared by several human activities just to meet the demands of expanding human population in most parts of the world. The invention of modern machineries further facilitated the clearance of our forests much more rapidly than they can be replaced naturally.

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Therefore, as a consequence, clearance of our forests leads to major ecological troubles which include the soil erosion, desertification flooding and mudslides and loss of biodiversity as well as wildlife extinction.

· Soil erosion. When you were in your elementary years, you were taught that trees uphold our soil and absorb water during heavy rains. Trees release water gradually to the soil beneath and to the nearby streams and lakes. Our forest trees which are also composed of bigger trunks and roots likewise shield the soil against erosion. However, at times when soil is exposed directly to the impact of falling rain, heavy rains could wash out the precious topsoil resulting to soil erosion.

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· Flooding and mudslides. In the cities, garbage finds its way into creeks, river systems and gateways leading to city flooding even during slight rains. Even, the natural river gateways have also been blocked illegally just to give way for the construction of more buildings and roads. Furthermore, in areas near the rivers, the opening of dams raises the water level much higher than the holding capacity of the remaining trees nearby the vicinity. Most of the time, the eroded soil called silt, may be deposited in rivers and streams and obstruct the flow of water. In the absence of trees, rainwater is not retained. This causes the ascending of the water level to flow, causing floods in adjacent municipalities. In worldwide, worst scenarios, such as mudslides have been reported in which the Philippines is not spared from it.

· Desertification. Water quickly evaporates from the soil due to the exposure of the soil to the rain, wind and the scorching heat of the sun. For this reason, the soil hardens. With the topsoil eroded, many plants will die and animals which rely on these plants will also disappear. Moreover, overgrazing of animals, also reduce the vegetation in the area. This broadens the deserted area as the graze moves on to more fertile lands. The once-fertile area becomes a barren or unproductive land. Thus, this kind of destruction to land leading to desert-like conditions called as desertification.

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· Loss of biodiversity and wildlife extinction. There are millions of species of living things that are shared in our planet Earth. This wide variety of life is called biological diversity or biodiversity. In its broadest sense, biodiversity is virtually synonymous with “life on Earth.” Perhaps, the ANE (Asia and Near East) is the most bio-diverse area on Earth. Do you know that almost 80 percent of the world’s endangered species and two-thirds of the world’s coral reefs are found at ANE. Unfortunately, the wide variety of life on Earth has been diminished by several human activities at a global range. The loss and degradation of species habitat are the utmost threat to the Earth’s biodiversity. At present, research reveals that the region has already lost 90 percent of its frontier forests; countries in the region have also lost 70 to 90 percent of their original wildlife habitats while forest loss has speed up. As part of this precious environment is lost day by day, countless of animals are facing extinction or death faster than they can be identified by man. Even plant species are dying before they can be tested for possible cure to deadly diseases we confront nowadays.

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