To begin with the USSR sent dogs on Sub-orbital flights, 28 of these flights took place. The dogs flew onboard R-1, R-2A, R-2 and R-5 rockets. The dogs wore hand knitted clothes during these flights, then during the flights involving the R-2 and R-5 rockets they were contained insidea pressured cabin. The R-1 and R-2A rockets were fored 100Km into space, during this time the dogs experienced a G force of around 5G’s. The dogs then briefly experienced weightlesness before falling back to earth and experiencing 5G’s again.

The first dogs to experience a Sub-orbital flight were Dezik and Tsygan. Their flight took place on July 22, 1951. Both dogs returned to earth unharmed. After the flight Tsygan retired and become a pet for the Soviet physicist Anatoli Blagonravov.

Smelaya and Malyshka were the next pair of dogs to be sent into a Sub-orbital flight, however the day before the flight Smelaya ran away, she was found and went on to have the succesfull light with Malyshka. Again the day before Bolik was due to fly in September 1951, she ran away. She was not found. However an untrained dog from the barracks was put in his place, know as ZIB (Russian for Substitute for Missing Bolik). Albina, Tsyganka and a rabbit called Marfusha made a flight on July 2, 1959.

In developing a space craft for humans the USSR developed saftey system including escape capsules designed for use in space and underwater. The space systems were tested with Albina and Tsyganka being ejected out of the space craft at an altitude of 85 km. They both landed safley.

The next flight was ment to be an Orbital flight involving Damka and Krasavka, however there were a series of system faliures and a 214Km the upper stage rocket failed and the craft re-entered the atmosphere. In this event the dogs were suppost to be ejected and the craft to then self destruct, howver both of these system also failed. A secondary self destruct mode was included, this was set to a 60 hour timer. A rescue team was sent to the and rescue the dogs. On arrival it was too dark to disarm the self-destruct mechanism and open the capsule. The team reported that the temperature was -45 degrees and that no life was detected. However when the capsule was opened the following day, the dogs were found alives, they were flown staight to Moscow. Bars and Lisichkawere not as lucky as Damka and Krasavka, they died 28.5 seconds into an Orbital flight after their rocket exploded on July 28, 1960.

Laika was the first dog or animal to go into orbit aboard Sputnik 2 on November 3, 1957. She died from stress and overheating around 5 to 7 hours into the flight. However this was not officially accepted until October 2002, previously officials claimed she had died from a lack of oxygen.

Belka and Strelka made the first succesfull orbital flight in Sputnik 5 on August 19, 1960. As well as the two dogs, a grey rabbit, 42 mice, 2 rats, flies and a number of plants and fungi also went on the flight. The scientist were intrested to see wther zero gravity affected reporductivity, Strelka had six puppies with a male dog named Pushok who participated in many ground-based space experiments.

Pchelka and Mushka spent a day in orbit on December 1, 1960 on Sputnik 6. However due to a navigation error, their spacecraft disintegrated during re-entry on December 2. Chernushka went on one orbit in Sputnik 9 on March 9, 1961 with a cosmonaut dummy. The dummy was included to show how a human would experience space. The dummy was ejected and then recovered succesfully. Zvezdochka, named by  Yuri Gagarin made one orbit onboard Sputnik 10 on March 25, 1961. Again the dummy was ejected and then succesfully recovered.

The final dogs to be put into space spent 22 days in orbit , a record that hasnt been beaten since. The dogs were Veterok and Ugolyok. They went in Cosmos 10 on February 22, 1966. they returned to earth on March 16. A space flight of this length was not completed by humans until June 1973 in Skylab 2.

The first Human in space was Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin on April 12, 1961. He spent 1 hour, 48 minutes in space.

The Soviet Union shocked the United States when they launched a man-made satellite into space. In October, 1957, the Soviet Union had launched Sputnik 1, the first man-made object to orbit Earth (“Historic” 2). The United States in January, 1958, launched their satellite Explorer 1; it orbited the earth a few times more than the Soviet satellite (“Historic” 2). The launching of the Soviet satellite was such a shock because it “stoked the US public’s fears that the United States was falling behind the Soviet Union in technological prowess” (“Historic” 2). These satellites granted access to anywhere on the globe for the Soviet Union and the United States. Man-made objects breached the barrier of earth and space, man himself would follow.

Before Cosmonauts and Astronauts could be sent into orbit or even into the realms of space, scientists needed to construct and test ways that would enable life to survive outside Earth’s atmosphere. The next step in the long process of exploring space was to test the effects of weightlessness on life forms; the Soviet Union sent up dogs and the United States sent up monkeys (“1959” 2). “On 3 November, 1957 the Russians sent Laika, a Siberian husky, into orbit, but days into the flight the dog died.” (“1959” 2). The Soviet Union tested even more animals “between 1957 and 1961[;] thirteen dogs were sent into space, five of whom died” (“1959” 2). Space was not meant for life to exist in it; man needed copious reassurance that the harshness could be subdued and was safe to venture into. While the Soviet Union and the United States competed to sustain life in space, on Earth they also clashed in the development of nuclear prowess.

During the Cold War, satellites brought a new age of warfare: Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles. Both the United States and the Soviet Union created strategic forces that primarily relied on ICBMs and SLBMs (sub launched) which were armed with nuclear warheads (Bruccoli & Layman 193). So many of these units had been made that “by the end of the decade the United States and the Soviet Union had each stockpiled enough nuclear weapons to destroy one another-and the entire world several times over” (Bruccoli & Layman 193). The availability of nuclear weapons combined with long range missiles was a devastating power. Oddly this power was recognized to be so terrible it brought about a policy of deterrence, effectively preventing countries from using ICMBs. The essence of the cold war was in full view.

In the early 1960s innovation of airtight capsules progressed and humans were safely launched into orbit. The Soviet Union shocked the United States again when they launched their first Cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, in April, 1961; he had completed one full orbit and the Soviets were ecstatic (“Historic” 1). After the flight of Gagarin the “Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev had declared: “Let the capitalist counties try to catch up with our country, which has blazed a trail into space and which has launched the world”s first Cosmonaut’” (“Historic” 2). The first manned orbital flight of the United States was achieved February, 1962, by the Astronaut John Glen, who circled Earth three times in his capsule Friendship 7 (“Historic” 2). June, 1963, Valentina V. Tereshkova of the Soviet Union became the first woman in space (“Historic” 2). The first woman of the United States was Sally Ride in 1983; twenty years after Valentina V. Tereshkova (“Historic” 2). Mankind having made its way into space raised its expectations to the next target.

A month after the first man was sent into space, President John F. Kennedy on May, 1961, announced a dubious but feasible goal of getting a man to the moon and back by the end of the 1960s. The Gemini space program was designed by the United States to develop new technology and the skills needed for a lunar mission (“Historic” 3). This included fuel cells for electrical power and the process of orbital docking between crafts (“Historic” 3). Parallelig Gemini, the Soyuz missions were the Soviet Union’s program that tested technology needed for lunar voyages (Bruccoli & Layman 476). During this period, space walking was tried by Aleksei Leonov of the Soviet Union in March, 1965 and by Major Edward White of the United States Air Force in June 1965. Because both men nearly died in the experiments, Space suits were heavily redesigned (“Historic” 3). “The way to the moon had been paved. Men could safely walk in space, docking had been achieved, and maneuvering the spacecraft had all been completed” (Bruccoli & Layman 474). Starting in 1965, all of the Gemini achievements were accomplished in two years.

The Apollo missions were where the United States finally got ahead of the Soviet Union. Apollo missions tested the Saturn rocket, orbited the moon, and launched soft landing probes which helped determine where to land on the moon (“Historic” 3). These missions were not without problems. The first Apollo/Saturn 204 mission in January 1967, was marked with tragedy because fire broke out on the launch pad while tests were being preformed; the three crewmembers were killed (“Space Disasters” 1). The crewmembers were Edward White, Virgil Grissom, and Roger Chaffee (“Historic” 3). Apollo 13 also experienced problems in space but returned to Earth without loss of life Space Disasters” 1). Progress toward the moon leapt when Apollo 8 was the first manned mission to complete a lunar orbit. The sensational accomplishment of the Apollo missions was Apollo 11; it was the first landing of men on the moon. “Following their two-and-a-half hour moon walk, Armstrong and Aldrin Blasted off from the moon on July 21, leaving behind a US flag and a plaque bearing the inscription: “Here men from the planet Earth set foot upon the moon, July 1969 AD, We came in peace for all mankind”” (“Historic” 4). The citizens of the United States were glued to their televisions and a surge of pride swept the country.

Having lost the race to the moon, the Soviet Union transitioned their space program to other endeavors in space. The Soviets became quite good at building space stations (“Space Disasters” 2). They did have problems occur though. “The second crew of the first space station, Salyut 1, was launched aboard Soyuz 11 on June 6, 1971. After a problem aboard Salyut 1 shortened the trip from thirty days to twenty-four days, the crew attempted to return home. They never made it alive” (“Space Disasters” 2). The Soviet Union found a more economical presence in space with the use of space stations. The easing of Cold War Tensions brought a cooperative venture between the United States and the Former Soviet Socialist Republics in space-station scientific investigations. This was the first time since the end of World War II that the US was cooperating with Soviets.

The ability to travel is space brought about the mind-set that humans would eventually populate space. The US and USSR had already sent instrumented probes to explore the inner system of planets by 1960 (Edson 2). As Edson suggested that “soon after men conquered the moon, they will ride out to explore this wider realm” (2), he was promoting this new vision of colonizing planets. “Perhaps, as men have today broken the chains of gravity, in that great tomorrow our children will somehow break the barriers of time and distance, so that humanity will move freely among the stars” (Edson 4). In this time period mankind is allowed to stay optimistic about what the future will enable our species to do, but, also has to realize its present limitations. Pushing through these barriers is the propelling aspect of manifest destiny.

During the late 1800’s America experienced manifest destiny as colonist moved through and settled the rest of the North American continent. The westward expansion of the United States and the Cold War were similar because in both cases Americans pushed into unclaimed land in hopes to prosper from the resources that are found on it. In both cases the psyche of the American spirit was defined by the experience. The race to the moon was how humans were able to enter this new unconquered realm of our solar system and beyond. Humans had sent man-made objects into orbit. Satellites brought forth communications across the globe and advanced targeting for long-range missiles. Life emerged from earth into an area thought to have none, as animals and people rocketed into space. Man then set his imagination on the moon while project Gemini tested new technology to make the trip possible. The Apollo missions took him to the moon and back so that man could stretch his possible grasp further and further. Mankind meanwhile has many more important issues to be concern with here on Earth. The space race did have a positive effect on earthbound life with the new technologies it developed that are now an essential part of our lives: computers, lasers, satellite communications, solar panels, and robotics. The impulse of controlling land beyond Earth will wait for a definite calling; when mankind decides spending trillions of dollars to expand its territory will be beneficial and worthwhile.