Henry VIII

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Everyone who has watched “The Tudors” is aware of the fact that at least eight kings named Henry have reigned in merry old England. Henry VIII was in fact the last of his kind. Since his death in 1547, no English king has ventured to call himself Henry.

Henry I

     In 1066, William the Conqueror defeated King Harold in the Battle of Hastings and became king of England. Two of his sons also sat on the throne of England. William Rufus became king in 1087. When the second William died in 1100, his brother became King Henry I.

     William the Conqueror had another son: Robert, Duke of Normandy. Since Robert was supposed to be the next English king after William Rufus, the two brothers were not on the best of terms. In 1106, Henry I defeated Robert in battle and added Normandy to his possessions.

     Henry I died in 1135. He had no male heirs. Before he died, he tried to secure the throne for his daughter Matilda, but his nephew Stephen became king.

Henry II

     Henry II was the son of Matilda and the grandson of Henry I. He believed that his direct descent from Henry I gave him a better claim to the throne than King Stephen. The resulting civil discord ended in 1153, when the two rivals agreed to the Treaty of Wallingford. The treaty stipulated that Stephen would remain king, but Henry would be his successor. In 1154, Stephen died and Henry II became king. He reigned until 1189. The dynasty that he founded is called the Angevin dynasty because he also was a count of the French territory of Anjou. It is also called the Plantagenet dynasty because Geoffrey Plantagenet was his father.

     Adrian IV was pope during the early years of Henry’s reign. This pope was English, and there is some evidence that he gave Henry II permission to conquer Ireland. At any rate, the late Professor Schumann of Northwestern College firmly believed that this was the case, and he added that the Irish were determined to prevent any further Englishman from becoming pope.

     In addition to his campaigns in Ireland, Henry II waged war against Wales, Scotland, and France. Henry owned extensive possessions in France, not absolutely, but as a vassal of the French king. Since the French king did not like it that so much French territory was under the control of a foreign potentate, there was considerable friction, and war was endemic.

     Henry II is noted for his improvements in English justice. Some of his reforms infringed on privileges formerly enjoyed by the Church. He wanted to try clergymen accused of crime in royal courts instead of ecclesiastical courts, but the martyrdom of Thomas à Becket forced him to give up this particular reform.

Henry III

     After the death of Henry II, Richard I reigned and then John. When John died in 1216, his son Henry III ascended the throne of England. He reigned until 1272. Henry III was a boy when he became king. During his minority, the kingdom was governed by efficient regents.

     When Henry became old enough to rule the kingdom personally, he did not fare as well as his regents had done. Troubles reached a climax in 1264 when Simon de Montfort led a rebellion and defeated and captured the king at the Battle of Lewes. However, three years later Edward, the son of Henry III, defeated and killed Simon de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham. From then on, Henry was wise enough to let his more capable son handle governmental affairs. When Henry died, his son succeeded to the throne as King Edward I.

Henry IV

     More than a century passed before the reign of the next King Henry. In the meantime, Edward I, Edward II, Edward III, and Richard II reigned as kings. In 1399, Henry IV rebelled against Richard II and replaced him as king. He reigned until his death in 1413. His dynasty is called the Lancastrian dynasty because he was the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster.

     During his reign, Henry IV had to put down many rebellions. Owen Glendower led the most successful of these revolts. He temporarily freed Wales from English domination in 1402. He was not completely subdued until 1410.

     Henry IV was never at ease during his reign. Shakespeare hit the nail on the head when he put the following words in the mouth of Henry IV: “Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.”

Henry V

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Henry V

     Henry V, the son of Henry IV, reigned from 1413 to 1422. He campaigned successfully in France. His most significant victory was the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In 1420, his successes culminated in the Treaty of Troyes, which stipulated that Henry would become king of France after the death of Charles VI, who was the current French king.

Henry VI

     Henry VI, the son of Henry V, was an infant when his reign began in 1422. His character was admirable, but he was a weak ruler.

     According to the provisions of the Treaty of Troyes, he was supposed to be king of France. His armies fought well, but in the end, the English lost all their French territory except Calais. Hostilities terminated in 1453.

     Two years later, Henry VI faced further troubles. The War of the Roses began, in which the House of York fought against Henry’s House of Lancaster. In 1461, Henry was deposed, and Edward IV of the House of York became king. Henry VI was reinstated as king in 1470, but in 1471 Henry’s partisans were defeated at the Battle of Tewksbury and Edward IV again became king.

Henry VII

     Henry Tudor became head of the House of Lancaster after the death of Henry VI in 1471. Through his mother, he was a descendant of John of Gaunt.

     In 1483, the young Edward V succeeded Edward IV as king. However, the coronation of the boy never took place. Richard, the brother of Edward IV, usurped the kingship and ruled as Richard III.

     Henry Tudor was in exile in Brittany when Richard became king. He returned to Wales, raised an army, defeated Richard III at the battle of Bosworth Field, and became King Henry VII in 1485. His dynasty is called the Tudor dynasty because his father was Edmund Tudor.

     Henry VII united the House of Lancaster and the House of York by marrying Elisabeth, the daughter of Edward IV.

Henry VII

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Henry VIII

     Arthur, the oldest son of Henry VII, was Prince of Wales, but he died young. As a result, when Henry VII died in 1509, Henry VIII, his second son, succeeded him as king. He reigned until his death in 1547.

     Ever since 1453, England had played a minor role in continental affairs. However, by war and diplomacy, Henry VIII made England a significant player on the international scene.

     Henry achieved notoriety because of the way he treated his wives. His marriage to Catherine of Aragon, the daughter of the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella, produced no male heir. In contrast to Fyodor, the faithful late sixteenth century Russian czar who refused to forsake his wife even though they had no children at all, Henry VIII divorced his wife and married Anne Boleyn. When this marriage produced no male heir, Henry VIII had her executed on trumped up charges. Jane Seymour, his next wife, bore the future Edward VI, but died in childbirth. The physical features of Anne of Cleves, his next wife, did not satisfy him, so he cast her aside. Catherine Howard, his next wife, committed adultery and suffered execution. His final wife was Catherine Parr, who outlived him.

     Henry VIII became the unlikely author of the English reformation. He broke with the papacy, not for religious reason, but because the pope refused to sanction his divorce from Catherine of Aragon.

      Henry’s advisers suffered worse treatment than his wives. Sir Thomas More and Thomas Cromwell were executed and Cardinal Wolsey probably would have suffered death if he had not died before his trial took place.

     When Henry VIII died, he was succeeded by Edward VI, his son by Jane Seymour. This boy king made a posthumous literary appearance in “The Prince and the Pauper,” a novel by Mark Twain.

Wyatt’s rebellion of January and February 1554 against the newly installed Queen Mary’s plans to marry Philip the future king of Spain sealed the fate of Jane. Many of Queen Mary’s closest followers saw this rebellion as a way to remove Jane permanently and although she played no part in the planning of the event she was charged with treason.

Lady Jane Grey was sent to live in Queen Catherine Parr’s household in 1546, the sixth wife of Henry VIII, it was at this time that Jane met and became acquainted with her cousins Edward, Mary and Elizabeth. After the death of King Henry VIII, Catherine Parr married Thomas Seymour, Catherine died shortly after giving birth to her only child Mary Seymour in 1548. Jane returned to live with her parents yet Seymour showed more than an interest in her and she was again living in his household when he was arrested on the charge of proposing Jane as a royal bride. Thomas Seymour was executed and her own father was lucky to escape prosecution.

Jane had married Lord Dudley in May 1553, the younger son of one of the most powerful men in the country at that time the Duke of Northumberland. The young but ailing King Edward VI declared his two half-sisters as illegitimate heirs to the throne and stated in his will that Lady Jane Grey be his successor. The changing of the will was some believed to have been completed with the persuasion of Northumberland, also with Edward not having reached the age of 21 many questioned the legality of the document. Some theorists claimed the king could not contravene an act of Parliament in changing his will in this  manner, others stated it was his divine right. Jane’s claim to the throne remained weak. The will was signed and an accompanying letter patent was signed by 102 notables including the entire Privy Council, peers, bishops and judges. Edward had wished that his declaration be passed in parliament in that September and the necessary writs were being prepared. Edward VI died on the 6th of July 1553 and four days later Lady Jane was proclaimed as the Queen. Jane refused to name her husband as king, giving him the title of the Duke of Clarence.

Northumberland had a number of tasks to complete to consolidate his power after the king’s death. He had to isolate or capture Mary to prevent her from gathering support. Mary had left when she was sure the king was not about to recover and joined with some of her supporters. Northumberland set out from London on the 14th of July and in his absence the Privy Council switched its allegiance to Mary. Jane and her husband were imprisoned in the Tower of London, the duke of Northumberland was executed on the 22nd of August 1553, parliament declared Mary the rightful Queen and Jane as being nothing more than a usurper.

Jane and her husband were both charged with treason, together with two of her husbands brothers. At the trial on 13th November 1553 her sentence was that she be burned alive but the sentenced was changed so her life be spared. The protestant rebellion of Thomas Wyatt helped to seal her fate, Jane’s father and other noble’s joined the rebellion. Mary was convinced by the nobles on her side to execute Jane and end any future unrest. Five days after Wyatt was arrested Jane and her husband were executed. One week later her father was executed, her mother remarried and was given a full pardon by Queen Mary and allowed to live within the royal court with her two remaining daughters.

Lady Jane Grey was dubbed as the traitor-heroine of the reformation by one historian, yet she was aged just 16 or 17 at the time of her execution. She was viewed as a protestant martyr for decades after her demise, she had received an excellent education and had a reputation as being one of the most learned women of her day. She was a committed protestant and as well as being viewed by many as a martyr she was posthumously regarded as a victim of the politics of that time.

The Protestant Church of England was restored under Queen Elizabeth, she relied heavily on her most trusted advisors and despite many courtships she never married and became known as the virgin queen. She strengthened England’s political allies and managed to divide their foes. The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 was viewed as one of the greatest military victories of its time against a powerful nation and led to a world dominance at sea.

Voyages of discovery were encouraged with Sir Francis Drake circumnavigation of the world during her reign and Sir Walter Raleigh’s explorations of he North American coast. William Shakespeare and the period of English Renaissance also occurred during what was to become known as the Elizabethan era.

Some viewed her as being short tempered or even an indecisive ruler, those not in favor would in many cases not survive for long. Her rival Mary, Queen of Scots was imprisoned in 1568 and eventually executed in 1587. After her brother and sister before her had both only reigned for very short periods of time her 44 years of rule were considered by many as golden years and she passed into history as one of England’s greatest monarchs bringing welcome stability to the country as well as a sense of national identity.

Lady Jane Grey, was born sometime in 1536, the exact date is unknown. Her father was Henry Grey, Duke of Suffolk. Her mother, Frances Brandon, who was the daughter of King Henry VIII’s younger sister Mary. As such, Jane was a blood relative of, and cousin to, the Royal children.

Frances Brandon was a capricious and unforgiving woman. She was a harsh disciplinarian who could be considered cruel even by the exacting standards of the day. Jane, who was known to have a sweet and gentle nature, drove her mother to distraction. Frances tried to bully some iron into her daughters soul but nothing Jane did could satisfy her. Starved of affection and the constant victim of her mother’s vindictiveness, she once said to the visiting Cambridge scholar Sir Roger Aschcam, who was to be the future Queen Elizabeth’s tutor, “ When I am in the presence of either Father or Mother, whether I speak, keep silent, sit, stand or go, eat, drink, be merry, or sad, be sewing, playing, dancing or doing anything else. I must do it as it were in such weight, measure and number, even so perfectly as God made the world, or else I am so sharply taunted, so cruelly threatened, yes presently sometimes with pinches, nips and bobs and other ways, that I think myself in Hell.” She found solace in books and learning. 

In 1546, an exasperated Frances sent the ten year old Lady Jane to live with Katherine Parr, who had married Henry VIII three years earlier. Katherine was a great conciliator and she sought to reunite Henry with his family. She adored children and Jane flourished under her care. Indeed, all the Royal children were to remembered their time with Katherine fondly. It was to be the happiest period of Jane’s life and in time she got to know her cousins, Mary, Edward, and Elizabeth. It was to be short-lived, however.

On 28 January, 1547, Henry VIII died. Katherine did not remain a widow for very long. Just a few weeks after Henry’s death she married Thomas Seymour, the High Lord Admiral. That she had probably done so for her own protection did not prevent their being a great scandal over her lack of mourning for the recently departed King. The marriage appeared to have been a relatively happy one despite Seymour making advances towards the young Princess Elizabeth, and probably Jane also. Whether this was done out of lust or ambition is uncertain.

In August, 1548, Katherine was was delighted to have given birth to a healthy baby girl she named Mary. A week later she was dead from complications arising from the birth, probably puerperal fever. Devastated at the loss of Katherine, who had to all intents and purposes been her surrogate mother, Jane attended her funeral as chief mourner. She was, though, now effectively an orphan. Her parents had no desire to have her back and so Thomas Seymour purchased her wardship, but within a year he was dead. Executed for treason.

Following the death of Seymour she became the ward of John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, who as chief adviser to the new King, Edward VI, was one of the most powerful men in the country.

During his short reign the English Reformation continued at a pace before unknown. Whereas, for his father Protestantism had merely been a means to get what he desired for Edward it was truly a matter of faith. A serious, humourless boy, who had never had much time for play, he was a committed Protestant. As indeed was Jane, who was also faithful to the new religion. It was during Edward’s reign that Protestantism became the established religion of England. The many reforms that were introduced, including the abolition of clerical celibacy and the Mass, the reading of services in English not Latin, and the use of the new Common Book of Prayer, and the many laws that now existed to enforces these changes were driven through by the Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer.

In January, 1553, the fifteen year old Edward fell ill. His condition, believed to have been a pulmonary disease, degenerated quickly. As  it soon became apparent that it was terminal, and that there was little hope of the young King’s survival, the need to secure the Protestant Reformation in England became of the greatest import. Edward’s sister Mary had been restored to the line of succession by their father Henry VIII (as indeed had Elizabeth). Mary, was a fervent, many would say, fanatical Catholic, who had fallen out badly with her brother over the issue and had only been permitted to continue to take Mass in private because of the intervention of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. A way had to be found to prevent Mary from becoming Queen. John Dudley, a man of over-arching ambition, suggested his ward, Lady Jane Grey as an alternative. It was a suggestion that was agreeable to Edward who knew Jane and was aware of her devotion to the new religion. In consultations with his Council, Edward drew up the ” Devise for the Succession.” In his Will, Edward excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the line of succession. To prevent Mary from returning England to Catholicism, Edward proclaimed that Lady Jane Grey would be crowned Queen of England upon his death. 

On 6 July, 1553, Edward VI died. Four days later John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, had his ward Lady Jane Grey crowned Queen of England. Northumberland, however, had not taken the necessary steps to ensure that Mary was safely under lock and key. She had been advised to flee but aware that to do so would end end any hope of ever becoming Queen she decided to remain and gather her supporters around her. She was surprised by the numbers that flocked to her cause. But to the people at large she was the first born of the old King and the rightful heir to the throne. Who was this Jane Grey, anyway. Also, her mother was still held in great affection and many had still not taken to the new religion.

The one person who seemed utterly oblivious to events was Jane herself. Earlier, on 21 May, 1553, she had been forced against her will to marry Guilford Dudley, a boy she personally loathed. She was unaware of the political machinations that had made such a marriage essential. As she was also unaware that she was to be crowned Queen of England until it actually happened.

No contemporary portrait exists of Lady Jane Grey, but she was described by the Genoese merchant Baptista Spinola, who witnessed her stately procession through London to Syon House, ” This Jane is very short and thin, but prettily shaped and graceful. She has small features and a well-made nose, the mouth, flexible and the lips red. The eyebrows are arched and darker than her hair which is nearly red. Her eyes are sparkling and reddish-brown in colour.” He also says how her skin was freckled and her teeth white and sharp. On the day she wore a green and gold velvet dress.

Jane was a reluctant Queen. At her Coronation she proclaimed that, ” This Crown is not mine by right and pleases me not. Mary, is the rightful heir. ” Admonished by all present for her words she was ordered to do her parents bidding. She did so as a dutiful daughter, but when the Crown was placed upon her head she said, ” I only wear it to see how it fits.” When she was asked to proclaim her husband Guilford Dudley as King, however, she refused. Despite the torrent of abuse that followed she refused to budge. She would make him Duke of Clarence and no more, but would be willing to defer the matter to Parliament.

On 19 July, Mary entered London with her supporters and the city immediately rallied to her. Seeing the way the tide was turning Parliament recognised her as the rightful heir and revoked the proclamation that had declared Jane, Queen. Mary acted swiftly, the Duke of Northumberland was arrested and executed. Jane and Guilford Dudley were imprisoned in the Tower of London.

Mary, let it be known publicly that she was aware that Lady Jane had been unaware of events and declared her innocent. She would not be executed for treason. In late January, 1545, Sir Thomas Wyatt, the son of the famous poet, led a Protestant revolt against the recently crowned Mary. It was easily suppressed but it had sealed Lady Jane’s fate. As long as she lived there would be those willing to rise up in her support

On 12 February, 1554, Lady Jane Grey, barely 17 years of age, was led to the scaffold. Her husband, Guilford Dudley had been executed earlier the same morning. She was calm and collected and remorseful for what she had been a part of. Mary had ordered that the execution be carried out within the walls of the Tower away from  the public gaze out of respect for her cousin. Jane addressed those present, ” Good people, I come hither to die, and by the law I am condemned to do the same. The fact, indeed, against the Queen was unlawful, and the consenting thereunto by me, but touching the procurements and desire thereof by me or on my behalf. I do wash my hands thereof of innocency, before God.” She then told the executioner, ” I pray, dispatch me speedily.” Then blindfolded she could not find the block and began to panic. The sight of this young girl stumbling, fumbling, and wailing, touched many of those present. Finally, she was guided to where she had to rest her  head. She uttered the words, ” Oh Lord, into thy hands I commend my spirit.” She waved her handkerchief and was beheaded.

The execution of Lady Jane Grey, who was little more than a child, did untold harm to the reputation of Mary, who had earlier declared her innocent. Jane had been the pawn of the ambitions of others, whether it was the Duke of Northumberland, or the mother who made no plea for clemency to the Queen on her behalf. This was recognised by the people. The same people who had flocked to Mary’s support now deserted her. Lady Jane Grey was to be the first of the many Marian Martyrs.  

Perhaps the biggest gainers during this period were the country gentry and the town merchants who gained social, economic and political influence. It was the gentry that moved from living in huts and into brick houses intended to be like manor houses. The gentry also demanded a greater range of goods than before and some of them would invest their surpluses into different trades and industries. It was the more astute amongst the gentry and merchants that took advantage of the dissolution of the monasteries that supported the religious changes of Henry VIII, Edward VI and Elizabeth I and it was the gentry in the House of Commons that caused such problems for the Stuarts. It was the largest transfer of land and wealth England had ever experienced.

Before the Reformation another way in which villages and small towns used their increased prosperity was to build new churches or rebuild their existing churches into the Gothic style. For instance Bodmin in Devon had a new church and Solihull in Warwickshire had one rebuilt. Religion and the local church were important to most local communities particularly the rural ones. Church attendance only became compulsory with the various acts of uniformity passed in the reigns of Edward VI and Elizabeth I. Elizabethan clergy would commonly complain about the rudeness of congregations that attended their services. Whilst those that did not attend would go to public houses or be watching cock fighting or football. That was despite non-attendance being punished with a shilling a week fine. Of course the Reformation would eventually turn most of England Protestant, popular opinion turning against Catholicism as a result of the Marian persecutions, war with Spain and the Gunpowder Plot of 1605.

A rival to the church as local focal point emerged, the village public house. Public houses not only offered social attractions, they also offered fermented beers and wines that were safer to drink than most water supplies especially in urban areas. Local parishes were important for economic as well as spiritual reasons, for they were responsible for the administration of poor relief alongside the monasteries prior to their dissolution. Local parishes relying on those later known as local ratepayers could find it difficult to provide effective poor relief during good times let alone bad times. The principle problem was that there was not enough paid work for everybody all of the time and not enough money to help all that needed it. Distinctions were drawn between those that could work and those that were unable to do so such as the old and the infirm, sturdy as opposed to impotent beggars. Governments tried to improve poor relief as early as the Statutes of Cambridge in 1388. It was the severity of the food shortages during the 1550s and 1590s that led to further legislation in the Poor Law of 1601. Relief was overseen by Justices of the Peace often members of the gentry.

London was the most important city and it expanded rapidly, its population almost doubled between 1600 and 1650 increasing from 200,000 to 375,000. Population growth in the capital depended on immigration from rural and smaller urban areas, as there were at least 7,000 more deaths than births in an average year. People were drawn to London for various reasons such as finding the best doctors or lawyers, to find employment, to study, to shop or even go to the theatre. Shops catering for the fashion conscious rich were developed along the Strand whilst prestigious housing was built in Covent Garden. Fashions were usually following the latest trends set in France especially after Charles I French marriage or under the influence of Charles II French mistresses. Added to the English immigrants to London were the large number of Dutch exiles that fled from the Spanish reconquest of their homeland from the 1560s. There was a smaller number of French Protestants or Huguenots that also fled to London in the 1680s. Whilst the rich and aspiring could live in Covent Garden the poor immigrants to London were housed in overcrowded slums in the suburbs where poverty, filthy conditions and ill health went hand in hand. It was no coincidence that the slums around London suffered the greatest fatalities in the plague outbreaks of 1603 and in 1665.

By 1665 the understanding of the causes of the plague was the as the 1340s. The remedies and medicines put forward as cures by doctors and quacks were just as ineffective as those used 300 years earlier. A desperate culling of dogs and cats did not stop the spread of the plague. The lower classes were prevented from leaving London to contain the outbreak; the rich and the powerful including the doctors had already left when they had the chance. Winter brought relief to the capital after up to a sixth of its population had died. Perversely it was the Great Fire of September 1666 that did more than anything else to improve public health by incinerating the rat-infested slums. A large rebuilding programme with many churches and buildings designed by Sir Christopher Wren emerged. From the ashes a greater, grander and richer London rose, but it did not take long to find poverty when leaving the shops and coffee houses favoured by the rich.

In educational terms these two centuries saw improvements in literacy and the numbers being educated despite the loss of some monastic schools. Those artisans and merchants that could had their children educated sometimes as lawyers in the Inns of Court, many of whom became MPs such as Oliver Cromwell. The Church of England was also able to attract a greater number of graduates into the clergy. In terms of literature the highlights were Cranmer’s Book of Common Prayer, the King James Bible and the plays of William Shakespeare. It was Shakespeare and Marlowe whose plays made the theatre increasingly popular amongst the upper and middle classes. Protestantism also helped to increase literacy with its stress on bible reading although governments were not always happy about mass availability. Amongst the most notable works were Bunyan’s Pilgrims Progress and Milton’s Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained.

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