Part I

It is rare in history for a monarch to achieve ever-lasting greatness; it is even rarer still for a monarch to have a time period named after him. Although the Age of Absolutism is not called the “Age if Louis XIV,” it might as well be, because Louis XIV has gone down in history as the very face, the very personification, the very soul of absolute monarchy.

     Louis ruled for an unbelievable 72 years, the longest reign of any monarch in history. He was a political genius who transformed a chaotic war-torn France into Europe’s superpower. He was a man addicted to absolute power, with a taste for making war, making love, and super-luxurious living. He was truly one of the giants of history.
     But it did not start out that way. Louis was born in 1643 to a France that was torn by religious war. Although France was Catholic, its Protestant minority- called Huguenots- fought for equality. This led to disastrous civil wars that nearly destroyed France.
     And then, more tragedy: King Louis XIII died suddenly, leaving little Louis XIV as king at just five years old. His mother, Queen Anne, ruled for him, but greedy nobles took the opportunity and rebelled. They nearly broke into the palace to kidnap the young king.
     The revolt was crushed, but it completely changed young Louis. From then on, he vowed that when he took power, he would never allow anyone to challenge his authority. So the seed was planted fir absolute monarchy.
     At twenty-three, Louis finally took power. Like Henry VIII, he was handsome, charming, and athletic, as well as highly intelligent. He wrote poetry and played music.
     Louis was also determined to rescue France from the civil wars and revolts that nearly destroyed her. He was also determined to become an absolute ruler. First, there was the dying population to fix. Louis appointed a brilliant businessman named Colbert as Minister of Finance. Colbert reorganized the tax system, encouraged capitalism and business to grow, and sponsored conquests of the Americas (like Canada). Louis also appointed members of the middle class to governments posts called intendants. That way, they (and their money) would be loyal to him. Soon, the economy went from bad, to excellent.
     More money meant a larger army. Louis increased its size dramatically and paid them well to ensure loyalty. With that mighty force behind him, no one dared to question him.
     Louis chose the sun as his royal symbol, calling himself the “Sun King,” meaning just as the earth needs the sun to live, so does a nation need a monarch- an absolute monarch- responsible only to God. He famously said, “L’etat, c’est moi,” or “I am the state,” meaning that every single decision in the kingdom was made by the monarch alone.
     But to keep absolute power, he had to bring the nobles under control. He had never forgotten their revolt, but he was politically wise enough to know he could not just arrest them all. Instead, he came up with a brilliant solution that solved two problems in one.
     All his life, Louis was addicted to luxury, fashion, jewels, palaces and art. So he decided that, if he was going to be the greatest king in Europe, he had to live like one.   In the tiny city of Versailles, he began building a new palace- but this palace would be largest, grandest, most luxurious, most artistic, most awe-inspiring palace in the history of Europe.
     The palace of Versailles was a colossal achievement of architecture, luxury, and art. Its halls, ballrooms, and dining rooms were filled with golden furniture, silk drapes, marble statues, fine paintings, crystal chandeliers, and glittering candelabra. Its garden held rare, exotic flowers and plants arranged in gorgeous geometric patterns, and marble fountains created dancing water shows. Louis said, “No expense is too great,” and Versailles cost 2 billion dollars in today’s money, the most spent for any place in European history.

Henry VIII

Image via Wikipedia

Everyone who has watched “The Tudors” is aware of the fact that at least eight kings named Henry have reigned in merry old England. Henry VIII was in fact the last of his kind. Since his death in 1547, no English king has ventured to call himself Henry.

Henry I

     In 1066, William the Conqueror defeated King Harold in the Battle of Hastings and became king of England. Two of his sons also sat on the throne of England. William Rufus became king in 1087. When the second William died in 1100, his brother became King Henry I.

     William the Conqueror had another son: Robert, Duke of Normandy. Since Robert was supposed to be the next English king after William Rufus, the two brothers were not on the best of terms. In 1106, Henry I defeated Robert in battle and added Normandy to his possessions.

     Henry I died in 1135. He had no male heirs. Before he died, he tried to secure the throne for his daughter Matilda, but his nephew Stephen became king.

Henry II

     Henry II was the son of Matilda and the grandson of Henry I. He believed that his direct descent from Henry I gave him a better claim to the throne than King Stephen. The resulting civil discord ended in 1153, when the two rivals agreed to the Treaty of Wallingford. The treaty stipulated that Stephen would remain king, but Henry would be his successor. In 1154, Stephen died and Henry II became king. He reigned until 1189. The dynasty that he founded is called the Angevin dynasty because he also was a count of the French territory of Anjou. It is also called the Plantagenet dynasty because Geoffrey Plantagenet was his father.

     Adrian IV was pope during the early years of Henry’s reign. This pope was English, and there is some evidence that he gave Henry II permission to conquer Ireland. At any rate, the late Professor Schumann of Northwestern College firmly believed that this was the case, and he added that the Irish were determined to prevent any further Englishman from becoming pope.

     In addition to his campaigns in Ireland, Henry II waged war against Wales, Scotland, and France. Henry owned extensive possessions in France, not absolutely, but as a vassal of the French king. Since the French king did not like it that so much French territory was under the control of a foreign potentate, there was considerable friction, and war was endemic.

     Henry II is noted for his improvements in English justice. Some of his reforms infringed on privileges formerly enjoyed by the Church. He wanted to try clergymen accused of crime in royal courts instead of ecclesiastical courts, but the martyrdom of Thomas à Becket forced him to give up this particular reform.

Henry III

     After the death of Henry II, Richard I reigned and then John. When John died in 1216, his son Henry III ascended the throne of England. He reigned until 1272. Henry III was a boy when he became king. During his minority, the kingdom was governed by efficient regents.

     When Henry became old enough to rule the kingdom personally, he did not fare as well as his regents had done. Troubles reached a climax in 1264 when Simon de Montfort led a rebellion and defeated and captured the king at the Battle of Lewes. However, three years later Edward, the son of Henry III, defeated and killed Simon de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham. From then on, Henry was wise enough to let his more capable son handle governmental affairs. When Henry died, his son succeeded to the throne as King Edward I.

Henry IV

     More than a century passed before the reign of the next King Henry. In the meantime, Edward I, Edward II, Edward III, and Richard II reigned as kings. In 1399, Henry IV rebelled against Richard II and replaced him as king. He reigned until his death in 1413. His dynasty is called the Lancastrian dynasty because he was the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster.

     During his reign, Henry IV had to put down many rebellions. Owen Glendower led the most successful of these revolts. He temporarily freed Wales from English domination in 1402. He was not completely subdued until 1410.

     Henry IV was never at ease during his reign. Shakespeare hit the nail on the head when he put the following words in the mouth of Henry IV: “Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.”

Henry V

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Henry V

     Henry V, the son of Henry IV, reigned from 1413 to 1422. He campaigned successfully in France. His most significant victory was the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In 1420, his successes culminated in the Treaty of Troyes, which stipulated that Henry would become king of France after the death of Charles VI, who was the current French king.

Henry VI

     Henry VI, the son of Henry V, was an infant when his reign began in 1422. His character was admirable, but he was a weak ruler.

     According to the provisions of the Treaty of Troyes, he was supposed to be king of France. His armies fought well, but in the end, the English lost all their French territory except Calais. Hostilities terminated in 1453.

     Two years later, Henry VI faced further troubles. The War of the Roses began, in which the House of York fought against Henry’s House of Lancaster. In 1461, Henry was deposed, and Edward IV of the House of York became king. Henry VI was reinstated as king in 1470, but in 1471 Henry’s partisans were defeated at the Battle of Tewksbury and Edward IV again became king.

Henry VII

     Henry Tudor became head of the House of Lancaster after the death of Henry VI in 1471. Through his mother, he was a descendant of John of Gaunt.

     In 1483, the young Edward V succeeded Edward IV as king. However, the coronation of the boy never took place. Richard, the brother of Edward IV, usurped the kingship and ruled as Richard III.

     Henry Tudor was in exile in Brittany when Richard became king. He returned to Wales, raised an army, defeated Richard III at the battle of Bosworth Field, and became King Henry VII in 1485. His dynasty is called the Tudor dynasty because his father was Edmund Tudor.

     Henry VII united the House of Lancaster and the House of York by marrying Elisabeth, the daughter of Edward IV.

Henry VII

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Henry VIII

     Arthur, the oldest son of Henry VII, was Prince of Wales, but he died young. As a result, when Henry VII died in 1509, Henry VIII, his second son, succeeded him as king. He reigned until his death in 1547.

     Ever since 1453, England had played a minor role in continental affairs. However, by war and diplomacy, Henry VIII made England a significant player on the international scene.

     Henry achieved notoriety because of the way he treated his wives. His marriage to Catherine of Aragon, the daughter of the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella, produced no male heir. In contrast to Fyodor, the faithful late sixteenth century Russian czar who refused to forsake his wife even though they had no children at all, Henry VIII divorced his wife and married Anne Boleyn. When this marriage produced no male heir, Henry VIII had her executed on trumped up charges. Jane Seymour, his next wife, bore the future Edward VI, but died in childbirth. The physical features of Anne of Cleves, his next wife, did not satisfy him, so he cast her aside. Catherine Howard, his next wife, committed adultery and suffered execution. His final wife was Catherine Parr, who outlived him.

     Henry VIII became the unlikely author of the English reformation. He broke with the papacy, not for religious reason, but because the pope refused to sanction his divorce from Catherine of Aragon.

      Henry’s advisers suffered worse treatment than his wives. Sir Thomas More and Thomas Cromwell were executed and Cardinal Wolsey probably would have suffered death if he had not died before his trial took place.

     When Henry VIII died, he was succeeded by Edward VI, his son by Jane Seymour. This boy king made a posthumous literary appearance in “The Prince and the Pauper,” a novel by Mark Twain.

Rafi Samad

Author, Freelance Journalist, News Analyst

Hampton Court Palace located in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames, about 18 kilometers from Central London, has a lot to offer to all kinds of visitors, be they seasoned tourists or casual picnickers, nature lovers or artists, cultural historians or people with specialized interests in Architecture, Royal lifestyles, Classical paintings, tapestries or Gardens.

The Palace and the Gardens enjoy a very spectacular natural setting with the River Thames flowing nearby. The visitor cannot fail to be captivated by the intimate atmosphere of the gardens and at the same time be impressed by the overall dignity of the Tudor Royal Residence.

The original building was constructed in 1514 by Cardinal Wolsey. It was taken over by King Henry VIII and converted into a Royal Residence in 1529. After major constructions carried out during the rule of Henry VIII, the Palace went through another major reconstruction during the rule of William of Orange in the 17th century. Construction in the 16th and first half of 17th century was made in the Tudor Style. Sir Christopher Wren, who was assigned the task of major reconstruction of the Royal Residence by William III (William of Orange) in 1689, employed both Tudor a well as Baroque Styles of architecture.

Among the earliest Tudor Style buildings in the Palace Complex dating to the first half of the 16th century are the Base and Clock Courts, Anne Boleyn’s Gate and Tudor Gatehouse with astrological clock, the Royal Chapel with its magnificent vaulted ceiling and the Great Hall, the largest room in the Palace.

During the late 17th and early 18th century, Sir Christopher carried out massive reconstruction of the Palace, remodeling the façade and constructing the Fountain Court with a new set of Royal Apartments. Also belonging to this period is the Banqueting Pavilion on a raised ground facing the Thames. A beautiful sunken Palace is also located adjacent to the Banqueting Pavilion.

   The Palace is located amongst 60 acres of gardens. A Maze is a major attraction in these gardens. It covers 1350 square meters area and is provided with 800 meter long zigzag paths bordered by manicured hedges. A Privy Garden is located towards the south of the Palace.

Adjacent to the Hampton Court Palace and Gardens is a deer park covering about 250 hectares, where Flower Shows are held during the Spring Season.

Hampton Court Palace is a treasure house of paintings and tapestries. The ceiling of the King’s Bedroom is decorated with Antonio Verrio’s superb painting of Endymion lying in the arms of Morpheus, the god of dreams; magnificent murals decorate the ceilings and walls of the Banqueting Pavilion and the King’s staircase.

Also included in the large collection of 16th to 18th century paintings are those of Raphael, Pieter Brueghel the Elder and Jacobo Bassano.

Among the notable tapestries at the Palace, is a 17th century Flemish tapestry illustrating the story of Alexander the Great. Another impressive Brussels tapestry adorns the Queens Gallery.

However, Lady Rochford joined the plot to bring about the fall of Anne Boleyn. She went so far as to falsely accuse the Queen of having an affair with her own brother. Rochford’s evidence led to the execution of her husband and Anne Boleyn.

Lady Rochford lost all of her money in the wake of her husband’s disgrace yet she became a lady in waiting for Katherine Howard. Her fate was sealed when she was caught helping Katherine have an affair with Thomas Culpeper. Ironically she was executed on the same day as Katherine Howard.

Bibliography

Weir (A) Traitors of the Tower, Vintage, London

MCN: W6TYB-5NST7-4R1J3

Whether you loved him or hated him (and he was certainly deserving of both), no one can deny the major impact Henry VIII’s reign had on England, as well as being one of history’s most influential monarchs. From the very first episode of The Tudors, I was enthralled and totally committed to seeing every episode made in the 4-season series.

Jonathan Rhys Meyers stars as a young Henry VIII, an avid sportsman and all-around hedonist. Purists complain that the series falls short of being 100% historically accurate. Yes, that is a valid complaint if this were a history class instead of entertainment, and this most certainly is entertainment. The lion’s share of the series is, however, accurate insofar as history is concerned. I have always been interested in the Tudor reign of the British monarchy, and as such have read a great deal of the histories of both Henry VIII and his daughter Elizabeth I. Truth be told, some of the more interesting facts of this period were not included in the series – more on that later on.

The Tudor Family – Henry VII, Elizabeth of York, Henry VIII and Jayne Seymour

Henry VIII is most remembered for his having had 6 wives, and this common thread permeates the series 4 seasons. A young Henry is first introduced in season 1 as a lusty and hot-tempered monarch, immersed in such a passionate existence that many of his would-be kingly duties are performed by Cardinal Wolsey, played by Sam Neill. Sam is wonderful in this role, as his machinations of the kingdom’s direction leaves Henry free to indulge in his limitless hedonism. Question: What is the difference between rape and seduction? Answer: Patience, and patience is an element foreign to Henry’s behavioral repertoire, whose every whim was quickly catered to. As Henry’s life as king unfolds, the viewer is introduced to the personal agendas of many of the changing cast of this period of time. One thing the viewer is constantly reminded of is that Henry’s agenda is paramount, and if someone else’s agenda is at odds against Henry’s, the king’s agenda will prevail.

British coin minted in 2009.

(Photo courtesy of Philbert Desanex).

Agendas. Everybody has them – many are hidden. Some are overt, and if yours can be smoothly melded with the agendas of those in power, so much the better for you. It’s like that now, and that has always been the case, especially in 1509 with Henry VIII’s accession to the throne of England.

By virtue of the time element involved since Henry VIII’s reign (we are talking half a millennium here), his era has been elevated into almost a pseudo-mythology, somewhat romanticized while still retaining the gritty reality of hardships endured, especially that of the axe falling down upon so many necks of that period.

Using the poetic imagery of history, exhaustive research, insight, and an ingenious plot interweaving fiction with the dramatic and historical events of the era, here has been produced an authoritative account of the reign of Henry Tudor. It is no exaggeration to say that the viewing of this brilliantly imaginative series is an experience that no viewer will ever forget. It is a most powerful and serious work.

On a final note, it is rumoured that Henry’s embalmed corpse was, at his daughter Mary’s command, removed from his tomb and burned as a heretic!

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Rhodora Bande also writes at Online Writing Ideas

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Image by Abode of Chaos via Flickr

The US military sometimes executes its service members but that doesn’t happen often.  The last time, in fact, was April 13, 1961.  On that day, U.S. Army Private John A. Bennett was hanged after being convicted of rape and attempted murder.   Private Bennett may, however, soon have company.  The US military has charged Bradley Manning with 22 new counts, including capital offense.  Manning’s crime was neither rape nor murder.  He is the intelligence officer accused of disclosing more than 260,000 diplomatic cables, more than 90,000 intelligence reports on the war in Afghanistan and one video of a military helicopter attack to Wikileaks.  Wikileaks, in turn, used those cables to hugely embarrass the US government.

I would like to emphasize this point.  For, while the rhetoric surrounding WikiLeaks cables has been quite heated, the actual releases were in fact an embarrassment; nothing more.  The British Broadcasting Corporation notes that the leaks were hugely entertaining (I notice they particularly liked the ones about Berlusconi) but Wikileaks isn’t going to change much.  Countries do not break off ties over such things.  Even the conservative New York Post admits that for the most part, the latest documents don’t include real bombshells. (This doesn’t stop the New York Post for calling for the full extent of the law to be brought down on the leakers—though they do not call for the death penalty.)  A liberal blog (World Meets US) opines that embarrassing US diplomats is hardly news and that, quite frankly, the whole Wikileaks story is nothing more than a journalistic spectacle. 

In other words, lambast aside, it would appear that Bradley Manning is faced with the death penalty because he helped Assange embarrass the United States as well as some key US allies.  (Like Omar Qaddafi, for example.) 

Those of you who have read my previous article on the death penalty know that, while I oppose it, I believe that while it is the law, it should be applied to all equitably.  However, I would argue there is nothing equitable in calling for the death penalty for Bradley Manning.  He did not rape or murder.  Indeed, for all the talk of how he put lives in danger, the information is highly perishable.  (Informants who survive don’t stick around in the same place for very long or use the same names, etc.)  Furthermore, in a liberal democracy, we don’t ban an activity until the participants prove that it will harm the state.  And not just harm the state in some distant future but that the harm constitutes a clear and present danger to the state.  (Incidentally, the clear and present danger test only goes into effect in a time of war.)

No, the way the US military is treating Manning is hardly justice.  Justice would be to have him dishonorably discharged and perhaps fined.  I can even see him doing some time.  But the approach the US military has taken is reminiscent of the way Henry VIII treated Thomas Becket.  He too was an embarrassment to the State.

Makes you wonder how many wives Eric Holder has, doesn’t it?

The Marcher Lords were nobles appointed under the trust of the king to guard the border known at that time as the Welsh Marches between England and Wales. The marcher Lords included the Earls of Chester, Hereford, Gloucester, Pembroke and Shrewsbury. Within Wales and along the border Edward I had built an ‘iron ring’ a series of fortresses during the late 13th century to assist him in defending the lands gained during the military campaigns against the Welsh.

Once the brothers Llywelyn (in 1282) and Dafydd (1283) had been defeated the Principality became a part of England and Edward began the task of pacifying and organizing the new territory under his control. The counties of Anglesey, Merionethshire, Flintshire and Caernarfonshire were all created at this time from Gwynedd in North Wales. In West Wales Cardiganshire and Carmarthenshire emerged , the other Welsh counties that existed until they were reformed in the 20th century were not established until 1536.

The system of common law that existed in England was introduced, royal officials such as bailiffs, coroners and sheriffs were appointed for administering justice and the collecting of taxes.

The statute lasted until King Henry VIII issued his Laws in Wales Act in 1536, this series of acts or new laws were written between 1535 and 1542. In the 250 years since the Statute of Rhuddlan there had been growing concern about the level of lawlessness in some of the self governing Welsh Marches. Many of the marcher Lords had been killed during the Wars of the Roses (1455-85) and their lands and been governed at a distance  by the crown. Henry VIII instructed his chief administrator Thomas Cromwell to seek a solution to the growing problem, the new laws or acts were that solution.

Maintaining the garrison at Calais had been a constant drain upon the English monarchy yet its once formidable walls had been neglected. Henry VIII had again used the port as the base for his unsuccessful invasions of France.

However disaster apparently struck for the English when Henry’s eldest daughter Mary was queen. She had gone to war against France to assist her husband Phillip II of Spain. The loss of Calais was swift, the port fell on January 7 1558. Mary and many of her subjects were distraught at the time but the end of an English foothold in France was a blessing in disguise.

Bibliography

Holmes R (2007) Battlefield

Lenman B (2004) The Chambers Dictionary of World History

Marsh W B & Carrick B (2004) 365 Great Stories From History For Every Day of the Year

Wyatt’s rebellion of January and February 1554 against the newly installed Queen Mary’s plans to marry Philip the future king of Spain sealed the fate of Jane. Many of Queen Mary’s closest followers saw this rebellion as a way to remove Jane permanently and although she played no part in the planning of the event she was charged with treason.

Lady Jane Grey was sent to live in Queen Catherine Parr’s household in 1546, the sixth wife of Henry VIII, it was at this time that Jane met and became acquainted with her cousins Edward, Mary and Elizabeth. After the death of King Henry VIII, Catherine Parr married Thomas Seymour, Catherine died shortly after giving birth to her only child Mary Seymour in 1548. Jane returned to live with her parents yet Seymour showed more than an interest in her and she was again living in his household when he was arrested on the charge of proposing Jane as a royal bride. Thomas Seymour was executed and her own father was lucky to escape prosecution.

Jane had married Lord Dudley in May 1553, the younger son of one of the most powerful men in the country at that time the Duke of Northumberland. The young but ailing King Edward VI declared his two half-sisters as illegitimate heirs to the throne and stated in his will that Lady Jane Grey be his successor. The changing of the will was some believed to have been completed with the persuasion of Northumberland, also with Edward not having reached the age of 21 many questioned the legality of the document. Some theorists claimed the king could not contravene an act of Parliament in changing his will in this  manner, others stated it was his divine right. Jane’s claim to the throne remained weak. The will was signed and an accompanying letter patent was signed by 102 notables including the entire Privy Council, peers, bishops and judges. Edward had wished that his declaration be passed in parliament in that September and the necessary writs were being prepared. Edward VI died on the 6th of July 1553 and four days later Lady Jane was proclaimed as the Queen. Jane refused to name her husband as king, giving him the title of the Duke of Clarence.

Northumberland had a number of tasks to complete to consolidate his power after the king’s death. He had to isolate or capture Mary to prevent her from gathering support. Mary had left when she was sure the king was not about to recover and joined with some of her supporters. Northumberland set out from London on the 14th of July and in his absence the Privy Council switched its allegiance to Mary. Jane and her husband were imprisoned in the Tower of London, the duke of Northumberland was executed on the 22nd of August 1553, parliament declared Mary the rightful Queen and Jane as being nothing more than a usurper.

Jane and her husband were both charged with treason, together with two of her husbands brothers. At the trial on 13th November 1553 her sentence was that she be burned alive but the sentenced was changed so her life be spared. The protestant rebellion of Thomas Wyatt helped to seal her fate, Jane’s father and other noble’s joined the rebellion. Mary was convinced by the nobles on her side to execute Jane and end any future unrest. Five days after Wyatt was arrested Jane and her husband were executed. One week later her father was executed, her mother remarried and was given a full pardon by Queen Mary and allowed to live within the royal court with her two remaining daughters.

Lady Jane Grey was dubbed as the traitor-heroine of the reformation by one historian, yet she was aged just 16 or 17 at the time of her execution. She was viewed as a protestant martyr for decades after her demise, she had received an excellent education and had a reputation as being one of the most learned women of her day. She was a committed protestant and as well as being viewed by many as a martyr she was posthumously regarded as a victim of the politics of that time.

The Protestant Church of England was restored under Queen Elizabeth, she relied heavily on her most trusted advisors and despite many courtships she never married and became known as the virgin queen. She strengthened England’s political allies and managed to divide their foes. The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 was viewed as one of the greatest military victories of its time against a powerful nation and led to a world dominance at sea.

Voyages of discovery were encouraged with Sir Francis Drake circumnavigation of the world during her reign and Sir Walter Raleigh’s explorations of he North American coast. William Shakespeare and the period of English Renaissance also occurred during what was to become known as the Elizabethan era.

Some viewed her as being short tempered or even an indecisive ruler, those not in favor would in many cases not survive for long. Her rival Mary, Queen of Scots was imprisoned in 1568 and eventually executed in 1587. After her brother and sister before her had both only reigned for very short periods of time her 44 years of rule were considered by many as golden years and she passed into history as one of England’s greatest monarchs bringing welcome stability to the country as well as a sense of national identity.