Austrian imperial crown, the largest cut emerald in Habsburgs’ Palace (Vienna) is the last treasure of Holy Roman Empire in the world. Napoleon of French abandoned his invasion to England in summer and started to proclaim the Austrian Empire in August 1804. The great interest of Napoleon and his son on Austria is to get the last treasure of Holy Roman Empire, the imperial crown. French start invasion to Austria with 200,000 troops while Austrian General prepared fortress of Ulm in Bavaria to prevent Napoleon threat.

The secrecy behind the royal treasury of Austria seen much complicated during that time, the crown was the personal belonging of King Rudolf II where the king of Austria was secretly decided to duplicate the crown with one of the famous illusionist in Austria. The duplicated crown was made of pure gold, partially studded with diamonds, rubies, sapphires and pearls. It was decorated with eight diamonds same as real one but the size of the octagonal body of the crown is two centimeters smaller than the real crown.         

Napoleon gain greatest victories over Austria in Battle of Austerlitz. Due to casualties, Austria made peace agreement in Pressburg and pay a war indemnity of 40 million francs to Napoleon. Russian withdrawal to east while Napoleon camp in southern Germany and established confederation.  Napoleon claimed the crown of Austria but Austria royal treasury deals French only with duplicated crown of King Rudolf as a friction of the day.

He became king of Spain in 1516, and was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1519. Charles became the most important of all the Holy Roman emperors and ruled Spain at the height of its power. He fought with the King of France over land in Italy and battled with the Turks in Hungary and Austria.

Charles VI (1685-1740) became emperor after 1711. The other rulers of Europe agreed that if he did not have a son, his oldest daughter, Maria Theresa, would be his heir. Charles did not have a son, but after he died the other rulers refused to let Maria Theresa inherit his lands. This started a long war.

Charles VII (1726-1745) was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1742. He was emperor for only three years. Before he was elected emperor, he was Charles Albert, a prince of Bavaria.

The Holy Roman Empire was supposed to be a continuation of the empire of Charlemagne. So the emperors Charles I, Charles II, and Charles III were kings of France – Charlemagne, Charles the Bald and Charles the Fat. Actually, the name Holy Roman Empire was not used until after the time of these three kings, but they are known as emperors anyway.

Charles IV (1316 – 1378) became King of Germany and Bohemia in 1346. He also ruled as Holy Roman Emperor after 1347. He issued an order, called the Golden Bull of 1356, which gave rules for the selection of future emperors.

By the 1300s, the emperors had lost control of northern Italy. But they remained powerful rulers of Germany and Austria. In 1356, the emperor decreed that his successors should no longer be chosen by the pope and should instead be elected by a council of German princes. But until the 1500s, the emperor continued to go to Rome to be crowned.

Napoleon I of France defeated Austria and southern Germany in 1806. The emperor, Francis II of Austria, renounced his ancient title and the Holy Roman Empire collapsed. After his death, no more Holy Roman Emperors were elected.

The first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was Charlemagne, king of the Franks. Charlemagne conquered the lands that later became known as the Holy Roman Empire. In Italy, he helped to defend Rome against a barbarian invasion. In return, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne “Emperor of the Romans” in 800 A.D.

In the 900s, a powerful German king, Otto I, gained control over all of Germany, Austria, and northern Italy. He helped the pope put down a rebellion in Rome and was crowned “Roman Emperor.” The word “holy” was not added to the emperor’s title until some years later.

After several more clashes with the Romans, continuing until 9 A.D., the Germani again managed to regain some land on the western bank of the Rhine. The Roman Empire and the Germani, both having strongly defended borders, had generally peaceful relations during the first and second centuries A.D. These 200 relatively peaceful years were of great importance. The Germanic tribes began to group into nations. Included among them were the Goths, Lombards, Vandals, Saxons and Franks.

With the decline of Roman power in the fifth century A.D., some of these tribal groups again overran Roman territory. The kingdom of the Franks became the Frankish empire, which included most of present-day France and Germany. The greatest of all the Frankish emperors was Charlemagne. After his death in 814 A.D., the empire was divided among his three grandsons.

The western portion eventually became modern-day France. The eastern portion, which eventually became modern-day Germany, was ruled by Louis II. But neither Louis, his son “Charles the Fat,” nor any of the other leaders who succeeded them could keep Germany united for any long period.

Tribal chieftains continued to have absolute control over their lands. Other tribes, especially the Hungarian Magyars, threatened to overrun the country. One leader, Otto I, successfully invaded Italy in 962 A.D. and joined Italy with Germany to become the Holy Roman Empire. But like all the other “united” Germanies, this too eventually collapsed. Germany was the scene of immense turmoil for many centuries.

Grave of Conrad II at Cathedral of Speyer

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    The Saxon Dynasty had served as kings of Germany and emperors of the Holy Roman Empire for many years. Then in the year 1024 A.D. Henry II died childless.

     The German monarchy was an elective office at that time. Germanic peoples historically chose the most capable man as their leader, but royal blood was also highly esteemed by this time. Conrad, who ruled over the counties of Worms and Speyer, possessed these qualifications. He was capable; and as a descendant of a daughter of Emperor Otto I, he had royal blood in his veins. So he was chosen to be the next German king. Conrad II was the first king of the Salian or Franconian Dynasty.

     The German Monarchy and the Holy Roman Empire were theoretically separate institutions. The latter entity had been invented by the papacy in 800 A.D., when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne on Christmas Day. Since the papacy created the office, the current pope theoretically could have chosen someone else as emperor besides Conrad. Nevertheless, ever since the days of Otto I, the German king had also enjoyed the office of emperor

     While tradition is a formidable factor in world history, other factors also played a role. First, Pope John XIX favored Conrad when German dignitaries were trying to decide who should be their king, so he would naturally be disposed to give him the imperial crown. Secondly, Conrad’s military prowess was a decisive factor. Conrad had to face armed opposition to his rule. Ernest of Swabia did not think Conrad should be king, and powers in Lotharingia and Italy had the same opinion. Nevertheless, Conrad subdued all his opponents, appeared in Rome, and received the imperial crown from Pope John XIX in 1027.

     Conrad lost a little land in a dispute with Hungary, but he acquired extensive territory elsewhere. In 1031, he regained Upper and Lower Lusatia, which Poland had wrested from imperial control after the death of Emperor Otto III in 1002. These territories are currently in eastern Germany and western Poland. Moreover, When Rudolph III, the king of Arles, died without heirs in 1034, Conrad succeeded him as king. The Kingdom of Arles occupied extensive territory currently in southeastern France and western Switzerland. It was also called the Kingdom of Burgundy.

     Conrad had to return to northern Italy in 1036 to deal with a war between nobles. In 1038, he visited southern Italy and strengthened imperial influence in the region.

     His wife was the widow Gisela of Swabia. Their marriage drew heavy criticism because they were too closely related according to the laws of the Church. He was also criticized for interference in the affairs of the Church. However, there was no major fight between pope and emperor till the reign of Henry IV, the grandson of Conrad II.

     Conrad died in the year 1039. His son Henry III became king and emperor in his place. His dynasty ruled until 1125.

References

Wikipedia: Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conrad_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor

Wikipedia: Salian Dynasty

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salian_dynasty

Global Security: Salic Dynasty/Franconian Dynasty (1924-1125)

http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/europe/de-salic.htm

Wikipedia: Kingdom of Arles

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Arles

The Free Dictionary by Farlex: Conrad II, Ruler of the Holy Roman Empire

http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Conrad+II,+Holy+Roman+Emperor

Inheriting the Spanish throne meant that he became the ruler of a vast empire in Asia and the Americas. Closer to home it meant that he would spend most of his life fighting the French over disputed areas of Italy and his native Netherlands. The excellence of the Spanish infantry meant such wars were usually won. The death of his grandfather Maximilian led to his election as Holy Roman Emperor in 1519.

Charles found that the sheer size of his empire was more often a hindrance than of any great assistance. The unprecedented wealth generated in the Americas was frittered away in almost endless conflicts with the French as well as the Ottoman Turks. Things had got even more complicated with the onset of the Reformation whilst Charles was distracted by fighting in Italy.

Unlike the French, Charles never proved capable of defeating the Protestants, their survival being something he always regretted. Lutheranism survived because enough of the German princes were prepared to protect.

A burnt out Charles abdicated in 1556, leaving the Holy Roman Empire to his younger brother, and the rest of his realms to his son.

Bibliography

Lenman B (2004) The Chambers Dictionary of World History

Maland D (1986) Europe in the Sixteenth Century

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The Crusades Affect on Medieval Europe

    In the middle ages during the years from 1096 to 1294 there were constant wars called the Crusades or holy wars of the cross. Pope Urban the 2nd called the Christians from Europe to fight against the Muslims to regain control of Jerusalem. The total of 4 crusades brought much change to medieval Europe; the barbaric Europeans were brought into contact with their fellow Christians in the Byzantine Empire and their enemies the Muslims in the east.

    Medieval Europe’s economy changed from Manorialism to Capitalism after the crusades. Before the crusades lords controlled manors while their serfs worked their self sufficient lands called manors for protection.  The crusades brought a change onto this economic system because pope urban the 2nd called all Christians of medieval Europe to fight against the Muslims. The serfs that worked their lord’s land left to fight for their religion and never returned to work for their lords again. After the crusades the now free serfs looked to trade to make a living since they now had contact with the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim lands.  This form of economy was known as capitalism and the merchants freely traded with other areas competing with other companies.  Many more luxury goods were traded rather than just necessary goods.  Europe’s form of government also changed after the crusades from feudalism to monarchy. Self sufficient manors were no longer needed after the revival of trade and lords lost their power as a result government became more centralized and kings rose in power. Nations began to rise as kings began to gain power over their lords and citizens. Citizens began to pay taxes to their kings to repair roads and cities that had declined under feudalism. The strongest nations that rose as a result were England, the Holy Roman Empire and France.  Since the revival of trade cities began to arise instead of small villages and manors. Merchants and artisans began to move to old roman cities and they became centers of commerce and art. The citizens of these developed schools and areas to work and trade and develop businesses that traded with other areas to the east. This was a big change from small self sufficient manors.

    As you can see the crusades brought many changes to medieval Europe. Contact with nations to the east altered Medieval Europe’s economy, government and social environment.  Manors changed to cities, kings gained power, nations rose, serfs gained their freedom and trading was revived all because the crusades brought medieval Europe in contact with the Byzantine and Muslim empires

In 957, Otto’s and Edith’s son Liudolf died, making Otto’s and Adelheid’s son Otto II the apparent heir to the throne. When Otto II was seven years old, he was crowned co-king to his father, and in 967 at the age of 12 he was crowned as co-emperor. Otto I and Adelheid unsurprisingly looked to the highest places to find a wife for a crowned emperor.

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In Italy, they were direct neighbours to the Byzantine Empire which still held the South of Italy. Border squabbles and frictions about spheres of influence there kept relationships frosty between the two realms. But Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas of Byzantium’s western army was no match for Otto. Nikephoros’ kinsman, murderer, and successor John I Tzimiskes entered into negotiations with Otto. John refused point blank to marry off Princess Anna, the only princess porphyrogeneta (born under the purple, i.e. daughter of an emperor) outside of his realm. In a compromise, Otto finally accepted Princess Theophanu, a niece of John’s, as wife for his son. John on the other hand agreed to an immediate marriage for the 12 year old princess in lieu of waiting for her 16th birthday as usual in Byzantium.

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For the arrival of Theophanu in Rome in 972 a show of Byzantine splendour was put on. In elaborate ceremonies, the princess was first married to Otto II and then crowned as Empress of Rome. AS part of the festivities, Theophanu was issued with a document outlining her rights and the donations of lands as part of her dowry. The document is one of the most beautiful parchment documents that has come down to us from the Middle Ages. It was produced on purple parchment and written in gold ink, a process reserved for Imperial decrees of the highest order.

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The document held at the State Archive of Wolfenbüttel in Germany is probably only a copy, though it might be Theophanu’s personal copy at that. The archive is the legal successor to the dissolved convent at Gandersheim where the Imperial family deposited their personal documents. The document lists the lands that passed to Theophanu by marriage and her rights as Empress and as a member of the Imperial Council. In fact, Theophanu received the same amount of power as her mother-in-law Empress Adelheid.

A copy of the document may be viewed in the Café Theophanu in Quedlinburg, in case you don’t want to go through the hassle of gaining access to the State Archive in Wolfenbüttel.

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