as a consequence the subject’s behavior changes because of that experience. Or, more simply, learning is the process of recognizing how a living being’s actions change its

environment, other beings’ actions, etc. All living things can learn, even goldfish!

There are two basic stages of learning: acquisition and maintenance. When an individual is first learning something, this is called the acquisition stage. This stage of learning is not all or none; rather, it is usually gradual. You may have heard someone use the phrase “˜trial and error.’ Once armed with new information, an individual will act on the new information when it is appropriate. This is known as the maintenance stage. Learning begins to plateau during the maintenance stage.

Learning is done in four ways: Instrumental learning (which is more commonly known as operant conditioning), classical conditioning, non-associative learning, and social learning.

Operant conditioning is a form that may be very familiar to you if you have ever trained a dog. The majority of learning is some form of operant conditioning. The simplest way to explain this type of learning is that behavior produces events. An event can be a rewarding experience or a negative experience. As a result of such events the behavior changes. A dog learns that his behavior has consequences and that he can control what happens to him by behaving in certain ways, or refraining from behaving in those ways. If your dog raids the garbage, he is rewarded by this experience (by getting tidbits of food), and is more likely to repeat the behavior. Human beings are also products of this learning. We learn from a young age that if we touch a hot stove, we’ll get burned. If we put on a raincoat, we’ll stay dry. This form of learning is characterized by Thorndike’s Law of Effect. The law states that if the consequence is pleasant the

preceding behavior becomes more frequent, whereas if the consequence is unpleasant, the behavior will diminish and in some cases become extinct.

Classical conditioning is another form of learning that is increasing in popularity. This type of learning results from learning that certain things go together. This learning

was demonstrated by the Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov. In an investigative experiment, Pavlov was able to demonstrate in dogs that salivation could be started by

non-food stimuli such as bells, buzzers, and tones. In his experiments, he was able to show that dogs will salivate when they anticipate food. Thus he created an unrelated

stimulus, such as a bell, moments before giving the dog food. Soon the dogs learned that when the bell rings, food is on its way, and thus they began salivating. Humans also

learn through classical conditioning. For example, we know that if it is cloudy, that rain is a possibility. Or when something is burning on the stove, the fire alarm may go off. This type of learning is called classical conditioning because it was the first form of learning demonstrated experimentally. It is also sometimes called respondent conditioning, because the first steps in changing a behavior due to this type of learning, require involuntary or reflexive behaviors.

Non-associative learning is one of the most basic forms of learning. It is also called single event learning. This type of learning involves learning that some events are unrelated and irrelevant. For example if a dog hears a noise, he may respond by perking up his ears. This response is called an orienting response. If the noise is something which has no relevance to the dog, the dog will not respond when it hears this noise; however, the dog must first learn which noises are or are not relevant. This is known as habituation. One example of this might happen when you move to a house that is on a busy street. The first night you may have trouble sleeping due to your increased awareness of the sounds. Over the next few days you will become habituated to these noises, and soon you won’t even notice they are there. Non-associative learning is learning that there are not always significant associations between events.

Social learning is a form of learning that occurs as a result of being in social groups. In most animals, this type of learning is only responsible for a small amount

of behavior change. This type of learning is most prevalent in animal forms similar to humans. Chimpanzees do a great deal of social learning amongst their social group. Chimps will learn how to use tools by watching older members of the group manipulating those same tools. Humans are also extremely adept at social learning. We learn from others how things are done. Social learning occurs most frequently in a situation where there is some sort of social hierarchy or dynamic.

For the most part, operant conditioning and classical conditioning are the most effective ways to change a behavior. Non-associative learning and social learning are the least effective ways to change a behavior. How do we know learning has taken place? Well you can open up someone’s brain to find out if neural connections have been made; however when an individual’s behavior changes you have to infer that learning of some sort has taken place. Learning can be occurring even if you don’t see a change in behavior but until you do you will not know for sure if learning has occurred. You may have learned a task but lack the motivation to do it. You know that when the telephone rings and you pick it up someone will speak to you. Even if we learned this task we may or may not have the

motivation to do so–not picking up the phone does not mean we haven’t learned how! For example you may be hungry at the same time the phone is ringing, so the motivation

for food may be greater than picking up the phone. Motivation and learning work hand in hand. Learning is knowing how to drive a car, but motivation is the gas that will get you there!

1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.

2. Describing the consequences of behavior is can effectively increase the appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve discussing with learners about the rewards and consequences of various behaviors.

3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. Instead of using shaping, which is operant conditioning, modeling can provide a faster, more efficient means for teaching new behavior. To promote effective modeling a teacher must make sure that the four essential conditions exist; attention, retention , motor reproduction, and motivation.

4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model inappropriate behaviors.

5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is especially important to break down traditional stereotypes.

6. Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks. Thus it is very important to develop a sense of self-efficacy for students. Teachers can promote such self-efficacy by having students receive confidence-building messages, watch others be successful, and experience success on their own. .

7. Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their academic accomplishments. In general in my class that means making sure that expectations are not set too low. I want to realistically challenge my students. However, sometimes the task is beyond a student’s ability, example would be the cancer group.

8. Self-regulation techniques provide an effective method for improving student behavior

2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a behavior that has been learned.

3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that promote learning. Therefore attention pays a critical role in learning. And attention is influenced by the expectation of reinforcement. An example would be, where the teacher tells a group of students that what they will study next is not on the test. Students will not pay attention, because they do not expect to know the information for a test.

Cognitive factors in social learning:

Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist factors (actually operant factors).

1. Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction between learning through observation and the actual imitation of what has been learned.

2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theorists contend that attention is a critical factor in learning.

3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring. They expect certain behaviors to bring reinforcements and others to bring punishment. The learner needs to be aware however, of the response reinforcements and response punishment. Reinforcement increases a response only when the learner is aware of that connection.

4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the environment and the person. In fact each of these three variables, the person, the behavior, and the environment can have an influence on each other.

5. Modeling: There are different types of models. There is the live model, and actual person demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a symbolic model, which can be a person or action portrayed in some other medium, , such as television, videotape, computer programs.

Simple non-associative learning

Habituation

In psychology, habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which there is a progressive diminution of behavioral response probability with repetition of a stimulus. It is another form of integration. An animal first responds to a stimulus, but if it is neither rewarding nor harmful the animal reduces subsequent responses. One example of this can be seen in small song birds – if a stuffed owl (or similar predator) is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, including the large protozoan Stentor Coeruleus.

Sensitization

Sensitization is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a  stimulus (Bell et al., 1995). An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that will occur if a person rubs his arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation will create a warm sensation that will eventually turn painful. The pain is the result of the progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves warning the person that the stimulation is harmful. Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.

Associative learning

Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior. Operant conditioning is distinguished from  Pavlovian conditioning in that operant conditioning deals with the modification of voluntary behavior. Discrimination learning is a major form of operant conditioning. One form of it is called Errorless learning.

Classical conditioning

The typical paradigm for classical conditioning involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes a particular response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the “conditioned stimulus”). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a conditioned response.

Imprinting

Imprinting is the term used in psychology and ethology to describe any kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. It was first used to describe situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some stimulus, which is therefore said to be “imprinted” onto the subject.

Observational learning

The most common human learning process is imitation; one’s personal repetition of an observed behaviour, such as a dance. Humans can copy three types of information simultanesouly: the demonstrators goals, actions and environmental outcomes (results, see Emulation (observational learning). Through copying these types of information, (most) infants will tune into their surrounding culture.

Play

Play generally describes behavior which has no particular end in itself, but improves performance in similar situations in the future. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited to mammals and birds. Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own species or other animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have caught. Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to predators and the risk of injury and possibly infection. It also consumes energy, so there must be significant benefits associated with play for it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for example improving physical fitness.

Multimedia learning

The learning where learner uses multimedia learning environments (Mayer, 2001). This type of learning relies on dual-conding theory (Paivio, 1971).

e-Learning and m-Learning

Electronic learning or e-learning is a general term used to refer to Internet-based networked computer-enhanced learning. A specific and always more diffused e-learning is mobile learning (m-Learning), it uses different mobile telecommunication equipments, such as cellular phones.

Rote learning

Rote learning is a technique which avoids understanding the inner complexities and inferences of the subject that is being learned and instead focuses on memorizing the material so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major practice involved in rote learning techniques is learning by repetition, based on the idea that one will be able to quickly recall the meaning of the material the more it is repeated. Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion. Although it has been criticized by some schools of thought, rote learning is a necessity in many situations.

Informal learning

Informal learning occurs through the experience of day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of the danger inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from life, during a meal at table with parents, Play, exploring.

Formal learning

Formal learning is learning that takes place within a teacher-student relationship, such as in a school system.

Non-formal learning is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example: learning by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth organizations, workshops.

Non-formal learning and combined approaches

The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and non-formal learning methods. The UN and EU recognize these different forms of learning (cf. links below). In some schools students can get points that count in the formal-learning systems if they get work done in informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and training courses, on the condition they prepare, contribute, share and can proof this offered valuable new insights, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, teaching, etc.

In order to learn a skill, such as solving a Rubik’s cube quickly, several factors come into play at once:

• Directions help one learn the patterns of solving a Rubik’s cube
• Practicing the moves repeatedly and for extended time helps with “muscle memory” and therefore speed
• Thinking critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which in turn helps to speed up future attempts.
• The Rubik’s cube’s six colors help anchor solving it within the head.
• Occasionally revisiting the cube helps prevent negative learning or loss of skill.

Learning ranges from simple forms of learning such as habituation and classical conditioning seen in many animal species, to more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals and humans. Therefore, in general, a learning can be conscious and not conscious.

For example, for small children, non-conscious learning processes are as natural as breathing. In fact, there is evidence for behavioral learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in developmen.

From the social perspective, learning should be the goal of teaching and education.

Conscious learning is a capacity requested by student, therefore is usually goal-oriented and requires a motivation.

Learning has also been mathematically modeled using a differential equation related to an arbitrarily defined knowledge indicator with respect to time, and dependent on a number of interacting factors (constants and variables) such as initial knowledge, motivation, intelligence, knowledge anchorage or resistance, etc. Thus, learning does not occur if there is no change in the amount of knowledge even for a long time, and learning is negative if the amount of knowledge is decreasing in time. Inspection of the solution to the differential equation also shows the sigmoid and logarithmic decay learning curves, as well as the knowledge carrying capacity for a given learner.

how to know types of learners

            Types of learners are different. Everyone has his own type.  Learning English is not as difficult as creating a spaceship. There are many types of learners in learning English. What type are you? Here are the types.

1.     A kinetic learner

      People in this type like practical. They enjoy physical activities in studying. They will soon get bored to study text-book model. They prefer practice speaking to writing. They also enjoy playing games that need physical activities. What is the weakness of this type? Students who have the type are the best I think but theoretically they are weak. They sometimes will be trapped in common mistakes, however they do not realize. For example, they will say “ I am is an employee”. This sentence is wrong but they sometimes make this mistake due to their poor competence in language pattern. On the other hand, we should admit the advantage of kinetic learners. They have much confidence. This is the key of this type.

2.     A visual learner

            If you are this type of the student, please supply by yourself some materials like pictures, power point presentation, and some visual media that help you learn easier. Most children own this type. They need visual objects and they learn visually better than textually.

3.     A logical learner

            The people of this type enjoy puzzles, and patterns. They will learn grammar faster than speaking. The weakness is that they are less confidence to show off. A teacher who has this typical student must give extra motivation to make him/her feel confident. The measure of the competence of learning language is how a student can perform in front of public.

4.     A language –oriented learner

      This type is a learner who enjoys reading and listening. They can understand reading passages but they can not analyze the grammar. Their vocabulary building is better than other types. A language oriented learner is worse writer than a logical learner.

            How to know types of learners, you have to do a little research to your students. When you as a teacher know what type of learner of your student, you will be easy to deliver your lesson. Even though types of language learners are different, every one can learn better. You have to recognize what types of learners your students are.

Basically, what this thing is is an electroencephalograph machine that doesn’t take up an entire laboratory. The function of an EEG machine is to record the total electrical activity of the brain and then determine the wearers mood and levels of concentration. That is a big claim for such a small device, I was sceptical at first. But after playing this thing for almost a month now, I do not doubt it’s authenticity. 

Mind controlled video gaming sounds like something only future generations will enjoy, but the technology exists today. The Mindwave comes with 10 free apps, some of which are ‘mind trainers’ others are simple games. Unfortunately, there is not a great variety of these complementary apps and additional apps from Neurosky’s website are not cheap. To their credit though, Neurosky do seem to support and encourage third party development of new apps for their product. I hope in the near future we see more creative programmers deciding to have a crack at making and releasing new free apps for the Mindwave. 

This thing is a lot of fun and holds a lot of yet to be fulfilled potential. I believe the Mindwave would make a great gift for anyone with a computer and some spare time, regardless of age, gender or interests. Thanks to Neurosky (and other emerging brain-computer-interface-tech companies) the future is within our grasp, at least when it comes to gaming. 

There are lots of programs, books and even websites that can help you to learn a new language, i will talk about two of those resources i have personally used to get started learning a new language.

Personally i have always been fascinated by Italy and the Italian language, so i found myself searching for things to help me learn to not only speak Italian but also to write in Italian as well.

Livemocha

The best website i found was a site www.livemocha.com this website allows you to learn a language by reading and listening to it, you can take the starter course for free, but you can review submissions of exercises that other people are completing, these people are learning your language and you can advise them on any mistakes they have made, by doing this you earn tokens, these tokens can be used to purchase the advanced courses for yourself, so in the long run, if you don’t mind helping others you won’t have to spend a penny on the site.

Image via CrunchBase

The available languages currently available to learn on livemocha is huge, there are 38 in total and listing them would take too long, so check for yourself, one of the best parts of the site is the ability to talk to other users that are native speakers of the language you are learning, plus the native speakers can review your submissions, there are lots of tests you can take to see how well you are learning, the main types are written and spoken where you can read out loud and record your voice so that other member can tell you if your pronunciation is correct or not.

Rosetta Stone

The next one i use is Rosetta stone, this program doesn’t have a wide variety of languages like livemocha just yet, but it teaches the user a language without translations, it is a system based on word association that shows you a word or phrase and a picture showing what it means, the reason for this is that it teaches you a language in the same way as you first learned to speak as a child, this works well as we have all already used that skill to learn and we still have the ability to learn with the same skill, it also has voice recognition that teaches in sections so you say it right.

In reflection, livemocha is completely free and can help you learn from others and learn a wide variety of languages, on the other hand, Rosetta stone has to be bought but will help you learn faster and easier, assuming the program has the language you wish to learn.

Try one or the other, or use them both together for a fuller learning experience.