Espionage, otherwise known as spying, is the process of an individual or organisation obtaining information that is deemed secret and taken without the permission of the holder. Cold War espionage is the intelligence gathering activities that took place between NATO and the Warsaw Pact. Since the two sides faced the distinct possibility of waging war against each other, the CIA and its rival, the KGB, were both extensively used to obtain intelligence on the opposing force’s intentions, military and technology.

1. Who was McCarthy and what was the Red Scare?

Joseph McCarthy was an influential US Republican Senator representing the state of Wisconsin from 1947 – 1957. He is remembered as being a major public face where Cold War tensions fuelled fears of Communist Subversion, which was aided with his ‘wide’ claims of a large number of Communist spies, Soviet spies and sympathisers in the United States.

The Red Scare refers to two distinct period of anti-Communism in the US., the First Red Scare occurring from 1917 – 1920 and the Second Red Scare from 1947 – 1957. The Second Red Scare occurred after World War Two, which involved a large increase in popular fear of communist espionage as a result of the Berlin Blockades and the Chinese Civil War. Furthermore, allegations of Soviet spies infiltrating the US by government officials only served to fuel the fear that existed in the American population.

1. What was the Petrov Affair?

The Petrov Affair was a Cold War spy incident that occurred in 1954 on Australian soil. Vladamir Petrov, a KGB spy offered intelligence of Soviet espionage to the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation in exchange for political asylum in fear of persecution if she was sent back to Russia. His wife Evodika was not aware of her husband’s intentions and was subsequently couriered by two Soviet diplomats back to Russia. The plans backfired and she was granted political asylum.

After the Second World War ended, there was an influx of immigrants to the United Kingdom from countries of the British Empire. These immigrants were initially encouraged to enter the country to fill the employment shortages that existed after the war and the British Nationality Act of 1948 gave all citizens of Commonwealth countries effective British citizenship, and immigration from these countries saw some inner-city areas experience notable demographic changes, as the black and Asian communities in particular formed significant ethnic settlements.

In some areas of Britain these settlements caused racial tensions and uproars amongst the original white population. One key place was Smethwick in Birmingham, where during the general election of 1964, the Conservatives ran a provocative, controversial and indeed victorious campaign under the slogan: ‘If you want a nigger for a neighbour, vote Labour.’

When Labour took office in 1964 they were extremely aware of racial issues and were sensitive to the allegations that had been raised in Smethwick suggesting that they were too soft on immigration matters. Labour was known as the party associated with inequality and poverty- many new immigrants found themselves in a position of poverty and faced significant social disadvantages. The Race Relations Acts of 1965 and 1968 were evidence of the government trying to help these ethnic minorities aimed at outlawing prejudice and discrimination by law. Labour was faced with a difficult challenge: help communities integrate and progress without alienating the white working classes that lived alongside these ethnic minorities within the inner-city areas.

Wolverhampton MP Enoch Powell exploited and exposed these racial tensions in a landmark speech in 1968. Powell was a member of the Conservatives’ Shadow Cabinet and was in a position to hold a key role in any future Conservative administration. The speech made on 20th April 1968 was the ‘Rivers of Blood’ speech made in Birmingham- it caused controversy then and has continued to do so ever since- the location was conscious and highly appropriate given the impact of immigration from the Commonwealth into such communities, and there is no doubt that Birmingham was chosen for maximum impact. Warning of on-going tensions and possibly even violence if Britain allowed current levels of immigration to continue, Powell was heavily criticised as being racist and was forced to resign from the Shadow Cabinet by Heath.

Despite the passing of a series of Race Relations Acts from 1965 onwards to help integrate and support ethnic communities, Labour introduced The Commonwealth Immigrants Act of 1968, effectively reversing the 1948 legislation and making it harder for Commonwealth subjects to gain British citizenship. Many liberals were concerned by Labour’s response in the face of public support for Powell’s speech. Such support was evident in working-class London dockers marching to Parliament in support of Powell. Race was emerging as a new area of conflict in post-war Britain.

·  The is a proverb “ OLD IS GOD” so try some romantic old classic ways like getting down on your knees and proposing the girl. Its helpful still in this modern era.

·  There isn’t a need of using impressive and attracting words and phrases to impress the girl. You may end up being funny, stupid and senseless and would be a liability, Try to be simple as possible and say what you really mean to say.

·  Its really important that you show her that you really care for her and love her. So you may plan her a romantic dinner simply cooking her favorite dishes and playing her favorite music. Or take her for a romantic drive to the places where she would love to go.

·  Another romantic classic way would be preparing a banner written “ I LOVE YOU “ or “ WILL YOU MARRY ME” and show it to her, by sticking it in the place where she would see it. Maybe in her cupboard, or outside her house. Do not mention your name there. You may use you nickname there if you have which you use between you two.

·  One more awesome way of proposing her, would be “ Sky Writing” if you can afford it. It would be really romantic and make sure it shows when you’re proposing her and she sees it.

·  You may have places where you first met her or a place where you have spent good memories at, like a park or a beach or anything. You may propose her in that place.

·  If you have beaches nearby or a hill top, take her for a drive there, with her favorite stuff, and the sun setting , and you proposing her. The whole scenario would be really impressive.

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As follows are ten queen regnant from different historical periods ranging from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages to modern history:

Hatshepsut

The first female pharaoh to reign over ancient Egypt (1479 to 1458 B.C.). After her husband Thutmose II’s death, she became regent to her newly crowned young nephew Thutmose III, but would proclaim herself “Pharaoh” after a few years. An able leader, she conducted military campaigns in Nubia, re-established trade routes disrupted by the Hyksos invasion, and constructed the awesome temple complex at Deir el-Bahri.

Christina

“Christina on horseback” (1653) by Sébastien Bourdon

Queen of Sweden, dubbed “The Minerva of the North” for her love and patronage for the arts and culture. In 1632 when her father King Gustav II Adolf died in battle, she was immediately declared as “king” of Sweden at only six years of age. Educated as a prince, this very mannish but gifted ruler began to rule in her own right on her eighteenth birthday, and was able to effectively negotiate the Treaty of Westphalia bringing to an end the Thirty Years’ War in 1648. Overburdened by the pressure for her to marry, she relinquished the throne in 1654 in favor of her cousin Charles Gustav (Charles X), converted to Catholicism, and settled in Rome, where she died and was buried in St. Peter’s Basilica in 1689.

Artemisia I

“Battle of Salamis” (by Wilhelm von Kaulbach) in which Artemisia commanded five ships

The daughter of Lygdamis and tyrant queen of Halicarnassus, the only woman whom Herodotus attributed with manly bravery. In 480 B.C., she commanded five ships to assist her Persian ally under Xerxes in the Battle of Salamis; but when she found herself about to be captured by the winning Greek fleet, she deliberately crashed and sunk a Persian ship in order to deceive the Greeks into thinking she had changed sides, and thereby, to spare her life.

Razia Sultana

An unknown artist’s rendition of Razia Sultana

A thirteenth century Muslim ruler, the first female monarch to rule Delhi. She was chosen by her father, Iltutmush, over his many incompetent sons to be his successor. She started wearing man’s attire upon assuming the throne. She proved to be a capable leader both in the battlefield and in court, establishing law and order in her country, and successfully playing the game of politics to rally support to her side.

Septima Zenobia

Zenobia, portrait bust (Vatican Museum, Rome)

Queen of Palmyra (267 to 273 A.D), known for her exceptional beauty and courage. She was also well educated, able to speak Latin, Greek, Syriac and Coptic. She ascended the throne as regent of her infant son Vaballathus upon her husband Odenathus’ death. She personally marshaled troops into battle decisively vanquishing the Romans, conquered parts of Asia Minor and annexed Egypt claiming to be a descendant of Cleopatra and Marc Antony.

Maria Theresa

Portrait of the Empress Maria Theresa of Austria by Martin van Meytens

Archduchess of Austria and queen of Hungary and Bohemia (1740-1780), the only female empress of the 650-year history of the Habsburg dynasty. Being the eldest, she succeeded her father, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI; however, her accession triggered the War of Austrian Succession which was instigated by Frederick the Great of Prussia in his desire to claim the throne for himself. Strong-willed and ambitious, her many successful reforms included government centralization, establishment of the supreme court, abolition of capital punishment, power restrictions of local nobles, founding of military and engineering science academies, regulation of serf’s obligation and education support for the peasantry.

Catherine the Great

Catherine the Great (1783), painting by Dmitrij Grigorevic Levickij

Empress of Russia, well-known for the many lovers she had during her reign. In 1762, she, with the support of the Imperial Guard, took part in a bloodless coup that ousted her husband Peter III and had herself proclaimed empress. Under her rule from 1762 to 1796, she was able to annex Southern Ukraine and Crimea to Russia through warfare, promoted the arts and education and transformed St. Petersburg into one of the most impressive European capitals.

Elizabeth I

“The Ermine Portrait of Elizabeth I” (c1585) by Nicholas Hilliard

The daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife Anne Boleyn, nicknamed the “Virgin Queen” (as she never married) and “Gloriana.” Her 45-year reign (1558-1603), commonly referred to as the “Golden Age of England,” was an era of prosperity and great accomplishments, as follows: Church of England established; commerce flourished; North America colonized; Spanish Armada defeated and the world circumnavigated by Francis Drake; and arts and literature thrived with celebrated writers as Shakespeare, Marlowe and Spenser.

Isabella II

“Queen Isabella II of Spain” (1852) by Franz Xavier Winterhalter

The eldest daughter of Ferdinand VII by his fourth wife Maria Christina of Bourbon. She became Queen of Spain in 1836, because her father was able to persuade the Cortes Generales to set aside the Salic law which precluded all females from inheriting the throne. However, her corrupt handling of politics, military misalliances, tyranny and religious zealotry brought about the Glorious Revolution resulting in her exile to Paris in 1868 and her abdication in 1870 in favor of her son Alfonso XII, whose rule officially started in 1874.

Wu Zetian

The lone female emperor in China’s history. During the seventh century Tang Dynasty, she ruled with an iron hand, instituted a secret police force that did not hesitate to jail, exile or execute anyone who dared to oppose her. Though despotic, she was a capable ruler treating the peasants fairly; lowering taxes; improving infrastructure and agricultural productivity; recruiting qualified people to government through exams; and even allowing women to be educated. She initially reigned in her husband Emperor Gaozong’s and her sons’ name but would eventually declare herself “emperor” under the new Zhao Dynasty.

More History

• Warrior Women

1. Joan of Arc

   
   image source

   Known as the “Maid of Orleans,” she was granted the command of the French army in 1429 at a tender age of only 16 or17 by the Dauphin of France (the future Charles VII) during the Hundred Years’ War. She was sent to Siege of Orleans, where she captured all the English fortifications in just 9 days. Her victories in Jargeau, Meung-sur-Loire, Beaugency and Patay helped regained almost every English possession in France.

2. Septima Zenobia

   She possessed exceptional beauty and was well educated, able to speak Latin, Greek, Syriac and Coptic. Upon claiming the throne of the Palmyrene Empire (present day Syria) (3rd century A.D.) upon the death of her husband Septimus Odenathus, she led armies in defeating the Romans, who weren’t too thrilled on having women ruling their vast territories. She also conquered parts of Egypt and Asia Minor, but was ultimate betrayed by the new emperor Aurelian due to gender prejudice.

3. Ahhotep I (1560-1530 B.C.)

   She acted as regent when her young son Ahmose I ascended the throne of Egypt. She personally trained, equipped and rallied her troops in defeating the Hyksos invaders; and united Upper and Lower Egypt under one rule. This warrior queen, whose military exploits were recounted on a stone monument in the temple of Amun-Re, was found buried with three “golden fly” medals symbolizing her heroic courage in battle.

4. Angelica Bruton

   She was adept in both sword and hand-to-hand combat and served in various campaigns defending Corsica from 1792 to 1799. At first, she fought disguised as a man, but when her true gender was discovered, she had already proven her worth that she was permitted to continue in the army. This French lieutenant was awarded the French Legion of Honor by Napoleon III, the first woman to be so honored.

5. Aethelflaed

   The daughter of Alfred the Great and sister of Edward the Elder of Wessex, she became the ruler of Mercia (912 – 918) after her husband Aethelred, Earl of Mercia, died in battle. As a military leader, she had ordered the fortifications of her borders, led forces in defeating the Danish invaders and was able to recover lost territories.

6. Matilda of Canossa

   
   Sculpture by Bernini (Saint Peter’s Basilica, Rome)

   She was the Countess of Tuscany, had excellent weapons training as a child, and accompanied her parents in battle in 1061 defending the interests of Pope Alexander II and fighting against the antipopes. In 1069, she began to command armies and spent the next three decades in the service of several popes waging war against the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV.

7. Urraca, Queen of Aragon

   She spent thirteen years waging warfare against her second husband Alfonso I of Aragon in order to defend the inheritance rights of her son by her first husband Raymond of Burgundy. She was able to recover much of her domain and reigned victoriously for many years as Queen of Leon and Castille from 1109 until her death in 1126.

8. Tomoe Gozen

   
   image source

   A samurai from 12th century Japan, she was well respected and fought as bravely as any male samurai. While other women took up arms to defend their homes, she was the consummate warrior, skillful in archery, swordmanship and horsemanship. She was a loyal captain of her husband Minamoto Yoshinaka’s army, having led troops during the Gempei War and Battle of Awaru.

9. Catalina de Erauso

   A Basque woman from San Sebastian Spain known as “the Lieutenant Nun,” she escaped tp convent in 1596 at age 15, cut her hair short, and wore man’s clothes. She then traveled to Peru, where she enlisted herself, joined in the Arauco War against South American natives, took command when her captain was killed, and led her troops to triumph. However, her tendency toward violence was not only confined to the battlefield but also in her ordinary everyday life, involving herself in gambling, brawling, murders, thefts and various other crimes.

10. Nadezhda Durova

    

    A decorated army captain, she published in 1836 “the Cavalry Maiden,” a memoir recounting her military experiences. Though married with a son, she left home and joined the Russian cavalry, disguised as a man under the name Alexander Sokolov. She served with distinction in all 1806-1807 Prussian campaign and the 1812 Napoleon’s invasion of Russia, that Tsar Alexander I, who heard of her peerless courage, awarded her the Cross of St. George making her the first known female officer in the Russian military.

More history articles:

• Mighty Women
• Man-made Environmental Disasters
• Rocks and Stones with Historical, Cultural and Religious Significance
• Famous Teen Deaths
• Birthday Deaths
• Famous Holocaust Survivors
• Heroes of the Holocaust & Their Stories of Courage 1
• Heroes of the Holocaust & Their Stories of Courage 2
• 10 Bizarre Deaths in History
• 10 (More) Bizarre Deaths in History
• 10 (Ultimate) Bizarre Deaths in History

The collapse of the Weimar democracy in 1933 could not be attributed to one event, but more referred to in a monocausal manner. A multiplicity of factors were involved to upset the republics equilibrium and made it vulnerable to sudden shock. The complexity of contributing factors to the democratic collapse can be partially blamed on the shaky foundations and inherent flaws within the constitution, making the republic susceptible to future problems and the Nazi take over.

The economic situation which swamped the republic can often be blamed as a key factor or trigger in the disintegration of social and political systems. It can be said that it was the political intrigues of the conservative elites that allowed Hitler and his Nazi party to gain power and further amount to the last of the German democratic government, which was once fought so hard to support.

The shaky foundations of the Weimar republic were one of many significant contributions to its collapse during 1933. During the year of 1918, the harsh realities of the failing attempt to win the war of attrition led socialist Scheidemann, in fear of allied pressure, to announce the new German republic on November 9th. With Ebert as president, the new inexperienced government, lacking in tradition was hit with a “dictated peace” in the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty signed on the 28th of June 1919, was used by the allies to control and weaken German ability in becoming a further threat in future wars, without Germany’s input (hence the diktat).

Germany under the impression of a fair resolution under Wilson’s 14 points, but was later proven wrong. The humiliation associated with the new treaty lead the new republic government to be nicknamed the “November criminals” and this is verified with the reparation bill 231, or the ‘war guilt clause’, being told that the army was incapable of advance in the lost war, leaving military and civilians to blame the republic as what was described as a “shameful” peace by Hindenburg, and was later described by Hitler as the ’stab in the back legend’, to gain support from civilian’s for the Nazi party and as stated by historian A,J.Nicholls “all officials were hostile to the republic.”

The new perfect on paper treaty of Versailles would soon enough be put to practice. The constitution provided by the new government as a resolution would soon destroy itself, due to flaws within. This is easily shown with the system of proportional representation. On paper the ideal was that each party would have an equal chance in parliament, in practice it was this that lead to the parties of the new government breaking into “splinter” politics, leaving no majority votes, resulting in malfunctions to form a government. This resulted in 25 separate governments in the period from 1918-1923. The parliamentary government with its deadlocks, bickering and frequent elections disgusted the German people whose traditions were of authority and discipline. It can however be said that this (proportional representation) was not a main flaw within the system, but only a contributing factor. The system of proportional representation was also introduced in Europe and was used successfully and due to this the inexperience of the new German government can be to blame. As stated by historian A.J.Nicholls, “the proportional system helped those parties dedicated to the destruction of the republic”.

Article 48 had a second significant flaw in the constitution and contributing factor in Weimar’s eventual collapse. It allowed the government, in times of crisis, to let the president rule by a state of emergence, nicknamed the “suicide clause”. It was this flaw that later contributed in allowing Hitler to turn the democracy into a totalitarian state, to change the laws of the democratic system and take control of Germany. As historian S.J.Lee has stated, “the existence of article 48 was always potential for the translation of conservatism into dictatorship”

Economic instabilities were also a major contribution to the failures of the German democracy in 1933. The heavy reparation payments Germany was forced to pay as a result of the diktat treaty of Versailles, was put in place as a future weakening of the German economy in a revenge of the allied losses. These reparations, to be payed to the allies caused a severe economic dislocation in the early years; an obvious example of this is during the French ‘occupation of the Ruhr’.

During 1921 German payments of $50 million put enormous strain on the economy, Germany’s request to suspend payments until her economy recovered was rejected, as a result of this French gained German’s main industrial area in January 1923, the Ruhr in an attempt to seize goods from factories and mines. Passive resistance, ordered by the government meant that the German industry of the Ruhr was paralysed, making French attempts a failure, also having catastrophic effects on the German economy. By July 1923 a standstill dollar would buy 160,000 marks, by November the value of the mark was completely worthless, at 4,200,000 million to the dollar.

By the end of 1933 the republic had been brought on the verge of collapse. The financial disaster had profound effects on German society. Hyperinflation became a significant factor in the collapse of the republic in 1933, with wages for the working class becoming valueless, trade union funds wiped out, and middle classes and small capitalists losing their savings, society began to turn to extreme anti-republican groups. The replacement of the devalued currency with the ‘rentenmark’, in 1923 and was given equal value to pre-war gold Reichsmark in an attempt to save the economy. The turn to extreme parties due to economic issues is demonstrated with the 1932 elections.

Anti-republican parties gaining majority, the Nazis gained 230 seats, and the KPD, 89 seats. By march 1933 elections the Nazis gained 44% of the vote. These figures demonstrate the strain in which the economy had on the republic, the action civilians took in turning to other extreme parties for a resolution and the loss for support of the democracy leading to its eventual failure. As stated by S.J.Lee, “it was the economic disasters…which lead to political ramifications”.

The fragile Weimar Republic was held up by a ‘period of stability’ during the Stressmann era, a time of recovery and consolidation, of no violence, political opposition or economic problems, and social freedoms at a high. Economic stability improved dramatically after the year of 1924, due to the ‘Dawes Plan’, giving time for stabilisation by altering reparation payments, and allowing Germany to take on American loans. Germany’s acceptance of 20 billion marks from 1924-1929 of “short term loans” would later become a fault in the new recovery, by investing in long-term projects, and depending completely on the stabilisation of the American economy, it’s loans and Germany’s growing debts, living in borrowed time as well as borrowed money. And as historian S.J.Lee has said, “short term loans which had unwisely been committed to long term projects immediately wakened the industrial welfare infrastructure”, “ making it highly vulnerable to external pressures”.

The “young plan” of 1928 later refined Germany’s reparation payments to allow them to pay off their debt by 1988. Hitler, taking advantage of his association with Hudenburg, proclaimed his great opposition to both the Dawes, and Young plan were later used as a tactic of patriotism, gaining support for his Nazi party.

Under Stressmann power, German foreign relations began to improve significantly, implementing a “policy of fulfilment” towards the Versailles provisions in the belief that “the victors should be acknowledged and that over time, positive changes would flow”. The “Locarno treaty” in October 1925 was signed to settle issues between France and Germany and the post border between the two, it was significant in an ending to the idea of European winners and losers of WW1.

It was this that the anti-republican extremists parties later used to criticise the democracy and gave the army motive to be discontented with the republic government. The positive impact of German national status due to Stressmann’s cooperation and his policy of fulfilment is demonstrated in their admission into the “League of Nations” in September 1926. It was not long however until the building resentment would contribute to the republics collapse and the end of the Stressmann era, S.J.Lee, expresses that “successful though it appeared on the surface, it was fundamentally unsound”.

As said by J.W.Hidden “grave difficulties were bound to arise in Weimar Germany when the economic crisis of 1929 interacted with a political and social crisis, capitalising the growing resentment against the republican leaders”, the trigger of the eruption of the opposition of the republic was the depression of 1929, after the collapse of the Wall Street stock market in New York (black Thursday). Depression of disastrous proportions overwhelmed the republic, with figures of the unemployed rising from 3.5 million in 1930 and exceeding 6 million in 1932. The depression alone was not enough to cause such a collapse. “The depression did not start this process of decline; it acted as a turning point. It was not an initiator; it was a catalyst”(S.J.Lee).

The financing of unemployment relief caused bitter wrangling amongst the parties, thus the depression wedged the parties apart, and revealed the ineffective nature of what the parliamentary system consisted. “The depression created a situation in which the parliamentary system broke down, opening way to presidential government by decree” (W.M.Simon). The shift towards radical anti-republican parties became more prominent the lack of charismic leaders lead to the decline of support to the political system, having a significant impact towards the later collapse of the German republic in 1933.

The fragile Republic had survived all of its ups and downs of the 1919-1923 period. Attempts to overthrow had failed, hyperinflation overcome by introduction of a new currency, and modifications of reparations payments were made. A major contributing factor to the survival of all the pressures and threats towards the democracy’s existence was the sufficient amount of support, which was later lacked, making a further contribution to the collapse of the democracy in 1933.

It was the role of such as the conservatives/elites, retained in key positions of power due to the lack of changes made to the constitution, who’s anti-republican views influenced political decisions, and the social attitudes in the acceptance of the Weimar republic. The army itself was a key influence to and essential for the survival of the republic.

The army’s strong anti-republican lead by General Von Schliecher lead to the manipulated political scene of 1930-1933, and became largely responsible for conditions which enabled Hitler to come to power. The importance of the army is demonstrated with the “Ebert Groener deal” of 1918, in an attempt to save the republic, it was up until 1929 when Goener withdrew his support from the Muller SPD government, forcing their resignation. The army were a strong force, without their support the democracy was more susceptible to failure. The right wing Kapp putsch movement illustrates this reliance of the army within the republic and the relationship with Friekrops, “reichswehr does not fight reichswehr”.

The early instability of the Weimar relied on the army to hold back violent attacks against the republic, during the spartcist revolt of 1918; it was the army that ensured their defeat and the survival of the republic. In the later years of 1923 during the Munich Putsch it was the reichswehr unitsthat fired upon Hitler and his extremist party.

It was the lenient sentences that the unchanged judiciary had put in place towards right-winged Convicties, industrialists, Junkers etc. as historian A.J.Nicholls stated, “ majority of the judges had been appointed by imperial authorities before the November revolution”, it was because of this that their hostility to the republic influenced their decisions, which severely weakened democracy and contributed to the failure of the German democracy in 1933.

As the Weimar republic became weaker and the appeal of Hitler and Nazism became greater. Hitler’s new approach and the reconstruction after the “period of prosperity”, of the nazi party’s 25-point programme, lead to a greater popularity. Propaganda in 1928 became extremely effective, by exploiting the Weimar and the ’stab in the back’ legend. As expressed by Hitler, ” in every really world shaking movement, propaganda will first have to spread the idea” (Mein Kampf, p.531).

Nazi Ideologies gained the interest of right-winged groups, such as the army and industrialists, by promises of economic change encouraged middle classes to follow, the preservation of the rural community, “blut and boden” (blood and soil) soon followed gaining a wider support of the rural Germany. Hitler using his support of hugenburg and his status with 700 newspapers to promote himself. It was not however purely the nazi policies which these groups were drawn to, it was the growing hostility towards the democracy and the fear of growing communism which turned heads towards Fascism.

Hitler, being underestimated by conservatives was lead into parliament as chancellor in 1933, and soon, using the Weimar legislation he so boldly criticised, to gain further power and turn the German democracy into what can be argued as a totalitarian state controlled by Hitler and his nazi party. However it must be known that Hitler and his Nazi party was a beneficiary of the republic collapse rather than a catalyst.

As stated by S.J.Lee, “The collapse of the Weimar Republic was not due solely to the assault by Hitler and his Nazi party”, the republic had already proved highly vulnerable due to a multiplicity of anti-democratic, social, political and economical factors. It was the collaboration of these forces, which lead to the collapse of the German parliamentary democratic system in 1933.