The Cherokees and Native Americans are often viewed as heathens by people in the south along the Bible Belt and the Appalachian Region. However, it is important for individuals to realize that Christianity played a vital role for the Cherokees. The Cherokees in particular were spiritual in their beliefs and they also prayed in their own ways, they accepted the Europeans beliefs because of their openness within several organizations. Overtime several different denominations began to enter into Cherokee lands and slowly began to preach, settle, and eventually convert numerous Cherokees into Christianity.

The Native American culture, having been commonly viewed as heathens by Christians, had their own sets of beliefs prior to the Christianization efforts. Christians did not and some still do not realize that their forms of worship and their beliefs are not that different from Cherokee traditions. The Cherokees believed in a Supreme Being, who was the Creator of all. The term spiritual for the Cherokee culture meant an “active and alive flow of energy that connects us all to the Universal Spirit.” [1] Garrett also describes that to a Cherokee being spiritual is similar to holding on to something that we value, such as a lesson in life that we are taught. That is directly related to the way in which we are brought up as children, and how each family teaches and stresses different moral and traditional values to their offspring. While the term spiritual is interchangeable between a way of life for the Cherokees or a religious belief, the spiritual paths of the Cherokees were not taken away by the Europeans who tried to Christianize them. In fact it seemed that the Cherokees wanted to fit into the European culture and by converting to Christianity they were able to fit in and for them that meant become a more civilized culture as a whole.

Prayer is also another term that people associate with Christianity and modern religions. However, the basis of the term was set years ago by the Native Americans. Prayers for them were often in the form of chants or ceremonies. During a prayer the Cherokees did not ask for anything but guidance, but more commonly prayers were believed to be used to give thanks. “The process of praying for Native Americans is fairly open, but subtle; we use certain hand movements…the same is true [for Native Americans] with pointing the open palm(s) toward the sky in ceremonies, which signifies giving thanks to the Universal Spirit and the Great One.” [2] A prayer may be sent by the offering of tobacco much as the tithes that are paid to a church today.

The Cherokee beliefs were generally polytheistic and the belief in multiple gods existed, but one was held to a higher stature than the others. For instance, they believed that the setting Sun was the holder of evil gods, the reason most of their dwellings had openings that only pointed to the east toward the rising sun. Most believed in some form of afterlife and believed that during the afterlife there would either be punishments or rewards meted out by the Great Spirit. One Cherokee after the conversion to Christianity described his belief prior as: “To reverence the great and Supreme Being, love my friends deeply and to take vengeance on my enemies [and after converting to Christianity] In the Indian devotion there is nothing like pure religion. Tho’ they have faint ideas of Deity, yet they are far from loving him with all the heart.” [3] The Christian Cherokee reported his findings in 1823; nearly 25 years after the missionaries began entering the Cherokee country.  

The process of Christianizing the Cherokees was a long process that took place over the course of several years. Upon initial arrival the problem amongst the missionaries was the language barrier. The Cherokee syllabary was created around 1821. With the use of the syllabary Cherokees could now learn to write their language on paper. In 1824, John Arch a full blooded convert became inspired to translate a section of the Gospel according to St. John into Cherokee. This invention facilitated the transformation of the Cherokees. [4] Then by 1828, Samuel Worcester, the editor for the Cherokee Phoenix[5], translated the Lord’s Prayer.[6]

Missionaries began coming into America as early as 1566 with a Catholic Priest by the name of Father Rogers. Rogers upon contact with the Native Americans was uncertain and was unable to communicate with them. Rogers was not able to provide much teaching to the Cherokees, but he was the first recorded missionary. [7] Rogers was not the only missionary to enter and not be able to communicate with the Native Americans. In 1758, a Presbyterian missionary by the name of John Martin began trying to devise a plan to convert Cherokees into Christianity, and in 1799 Moravians entered the Cherokee land and was taken aback at how they were unable to communicate with them.

In the early 1800’s, missions into the Cherokee lands began to increase. At first the Cherokees was not officially opposed to the preaching of Christianity, but they did not want churches built. Cherokees instead wanted their children to be able to attend a school and learn reading, writing, and arithmetic so that their children would be able to communicate with the increase number of Europeans. The Cherokees wanted their children learn all that they could so that they would not be as illiterate and ignorant as they considered themselves to be. The same concepts exist today with the parents of children wanting their children to go beyond what they have been able to accomplish.

Gideon Blackburn, a Presbyterian who was contacted by John Martin after he had visited the Cherokee country, began asking for a government grant in order to educate the Indians. The process was slow and the two began talking in 1758, but it was 1803 before Blackburn received a grant of two hundred dollars in order for him to create a school. Blackburn received the Cherokees approval and was able to construct and establish his first school, one year after receiving his grant. Two years later, in 1806, Blackburn was able to create his second school by using left over funds from the first, and by the success of his first school.

The same year that Blackburn established his school, John Gambold a Moravian missionary was also looking into the Christianization of the Cherokees. Gambold came into the Cherokee country in 1804 and began trying to educate and preach to the Natives. Gambold found out that the Cherokees wanted schools and not churches just as Blackburn had discovered and in 1805 established the Spring Place Missionary School. The missionary school began with mostly young children but later branched out to have some adults in attendance as well, hoping to learn English. In 1819 Spring Place had 2 to 14 children in regular attendance and by 1830 they had 32 adults and 31 children. [8]

Cyrus Kingsbury was the next large player in Christianizing the Cherokees. Kingsbury saw the success of Blackburn and Gambold’s missionary schools and decided to create some of his own. In 1816 Kingsbury, created the Chickamauga Missions School on a 25 acre plantation. The Chickamauga school was a small portion of Kingsbury’s plans to aid in the education of the Cherokees. Kingsbury created what became known as the Brainerd Missions. Brainerd held numerous schools of different branches. Taloney was created in 1819; Creek Path in 1820; Hightower, Willstown, and Haweis in 1823; Candy’s Creek in 1824; New Echota in 1827; Amohee in 1831; and finally Redclay and Running Waters were created in 1835. All of the schools worked together but separately to educate Native Americans living in different parts of Cherokee country during the time period.

In addition to the Moravians and Presbyterian, there were also the Baptists and the Methodists that came to the Cherokee country. The Baptist associations came into Cherokee country from Georgia around 1816. The Baptists and Methodists did not set up any schools; however, they did preach and teach to the Cherokees. The Methodists came into the Cherokee country from Tennessee. The Methodists was under the Conference of Tennessee, directed by William M. Mahan. They set up four schools and had all of them established by 1828. The Baptists and the Methodists found the aid of the Cherokee Phoenix to be very helpful because they could distribute scriptures as well as hymns in both English and Cherokee. [9]

The missionary efforts were great by 1829, it is recorded that there were 1,028 Methodist Converts. The Methodists were the most effect in reaching out the Cherokees first. By 1831, it has been recorded that there were 192 communicants, 120 Baptists, and 74 Moravian converts.[10] According to Gulick in 1960, “There are as far as we know 17 churches.” 11 Baptists, 1 Episcopal, 3 Holiness, 2 Methodists, and the Roman Catholic and Mormon services are held in a community building, all of which would not have been made possible had it not been for the early missionaries that began working toward Christianizing the Cherokees in the early 1800s. Four of the 11 churches that Gulick found still offered church services in the native Cherokee Language. [11]

For the most part, Eastern Cherokee churches preach of the sinfulness and evilness of mankind along with the necessity of the belief in Christ so that the Native American can be saved and escape hells fire. With non-Indian church goers there is an intense emotion. The Native Americans, on the other hand, remain impassive and their social behavior does not typically express emotions during church services. However, they are accepting of the emotional responses of the non-Indian church goers and have grown to expect the outburst. The texts are sometimes sung in the Cherokee language, but they are sung to tunes derived from non-Indian backgrounds. [12]

In conclusion, the Cherokees may have been unwilling to accept Christianity and churches at the beginning, but they finally allowed missionaries to begin creating schools in 1799. To the Cherokees the schools were a necessity for their children to be able to live a civilized life amongst the Europeans. It was easier for them to realize the benefits of education than it was for them to see the benefits of Christianity. However, through the blending of Christianity and education the missionaries were able to accomplish both the education of Native Americans and the converting of Cherokees to Christianity. After 1816, missionaries built a network of boarding schools which catered primarily to the highly acculturated Cherokee leadership of the early 19th century. [13]The progress was great, acceptance was wide spread, and children as well as adults began to attend. The converting of Christianity grew and exists today in the Cherokee Nation. Today many people still view the Native Americans as being uncivilized and heathen, but in reality they have been quick to accept Christianity and are no different than the non-Indian American’s.  

Bibliography

Baird, W. David. “Cherokees and MIssionaries, 1789-1839.” The Western Historical Quarterly (Western Historical Quarterly, Utah State University ) 16, no. 2 (1985): 191.

Collins, Linton. “The Activities of the Missionaries Among the Cherokees .” The Georgia Historical Quarterly (Georgia Historical Society ) 6, no. 4 (1922): 285-322.

Corman, Catherine. “Writing Indians: Literacy, Christianity, and Native Community in Early America .” The William and Mary Quarterly (Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture ) 58, no. 3 (2001): 742-745.

Garrett, J.T. and Garret, Michael. Medicine of the Cherokee: The Way of Right Relationship . Santa Fe, New Mexico : Bear and Company Publishing , 1996.

Gulick, John. Cherokees at the Crossroads . Chapel Hill , North Carolina : University of North Carolina , 1960.

Kilpatrick, Alan. “A Note on Cherokee Theological Concepts .” American Indian Quarterly (University of Nebraska Press) 19, no. 3 (1995): 385-405.

Malone, Henry. Chrokees of the Old South . Atlanta , Georgia : The University of Georgia Press, 1956.

McNally, Michael. “The Practice of Native American Christianity .” Church History (Cambridge University Press) 69, no. 4 (2000): 834-859.

Perdue, Theda. “Cherokees and Missionaries, 1789-1839.” American Indian Quarterly (University of Nebraska Press ) 9, no. 2 (1985): 188-191.

[1] Garrett, Medicine of the Cherokee, page 110.

[2] Garrett, Medicine of the Cherokee, Page 116.

[3] Malone, Cherokees of the Old South: A People in Transition, Page 91.

[4] From a Note on Cherokee Theological Concepts, the article points out how without a written language the Europeans had great difficulties in communicating with the Native Americans who spoke mostly in their own language.

[5] The Cherokee Phoenix was originally called the Cherokee Press at New Echota and that led to the Phoenix which became a National Newspaper by 1828.

[6] Malone, Cherokees of the Old South: A people in Transition, page 114.

[7] Extracted from a journal Article, A Note on Cherokee Theological Concepts.

[8] Malone, Cherokees of the Old South: A people in transition, page 95.

[9] Collins, Activities of the Missionaries among the Cherokee, page 18.

[10] Malone, Cherokees of the Old South: A people in transition, Page 117.

[11] Gulick, Cherokees at the Crossroads, page 36.

[12] Gulick, Cherokees at the Crossroads, pages 118-119 goes into great detail describing the non-Indian verses the Indian churches.

[13] Perdue, Cherokees and Missionaries. 

            There is a story about a kind gentle people who coexisted with the land and animals around them. Instill the invaders came and brought disease, death, and destruction to the land. The invaders are called “the White Man” a term coined the Native Americans, who are the gentle people of the Americas. This is a tale told by a Native American who represents a counter culture in today’s society. Running along with the counter culture is a subculture with the Native Americans. As we go explore each and learn a bit more about the culture of a Native American.

            It all starts about 37,000 to 11,000 years ago at the end of the last ice age. At this point of time ice and glaciers covered most of the northern hemisphere of the world. In Russia at the end of the land, an ice land bridge was formed that connected to Alaska. The official report is that one to four different migrations took place across this bridge, named the Bering Strait. The people that crossed into new lands, spread out to all corners of the Americas. From these people rose the Aztecs, Incas, Olmec, and Mayas. The Olmec’s became the first civilization of the new land, but the name is misleading, as the original name for the first people is not known yet. Olmec is meaning rubber people in Aztec, referring a people who used vines of certain tree to make a rubber like stuff. Over the course of time, the land bridge would melt away, cutting off the connection to Asia, and the rest of the known world.  As they moved around, many tribes were created, along with new cultures, and new beliefs. The first contact with Europeans came by the way of Vikings, as they landed on Greenland. They became the first people in the Americas since the end of the ice age 11,000 years early. They made it to what is now known is Canada, landing in the northeastern part of the country. The Vikings created a settlement, but soon they packed up and left for Iceland, and Europe. After this brief meeting of two worlds, it would be another 400 years in tilled the day that changed the world. In the year of 1492, October 12, a man with three ships spotted land, and made landfall later that evening. On this day, Christopher Columbus made the first discovery of the new world. His ship landed in what is known as the Bahamas. Believing he was in India, the people he met were named Indians. The first people Columbus met were called the Tainos. The people he met were different then Europeans, having a strange culture, but welcomed their kindness. Once the news broke out, countries started to send explores, conquers and even treasure hunters. While many tribes welcomed the strangers with open arms, and support. Europeans came with something that couldn’t be helped, disease that Native Americans had no immunity against. In the first hundred years, half of the tribes were lost due to getting sick. Over the course of 300 years, Spain, England, France, and many other countries developed new colonies in the new world. They started along the coasts or islands. The tribes that lived in the area either moved west or were killed off over time. Over time, there was a push for westward expansion, as supplies, land, and search for gold ran low. Eventually South America was conquered but several countries that turned into wars over the land. In North American, as tribes moved about, some made use of the horses the Europeans brought them. The horse that either escaped or let go, grew in the new world, bring back a species that was not seen for many years. As the world would start to change, the Native American name would change also. The South America countries developed many names and formed a new but old culture that is strong in this very day. The Natives in North America who were many tribes also changed as some moved into Canada, others moved to the south, and some joined with the new country of United States. The hardest hit culture was the Natives in North America generally in the present day United States. As the search for new land west of the Mississippi, there were conflicts the Native Americans. Over time the U.S. worked out treaties with the Natives. The treaties served as a borderline of the territories, in till gold was found in George. The treaty that was established was ignored as people crossed into the native America land, and prospect the gold. This action lead to the government pushing the Natives two thousand miles west, which is named the Trail of Tears. Over the course of time, the natives were pushed west all the way to the pacific. Once the United States of America formed, they natives were absorbed into the new country. While part of the United States, there is a counter culture of Native Americans flowing against the Americans. Alongside it has also developed a subculture towards the Native American.

            A counter culture is a group of people who go against the dominating culture. One of the first things noticed by the counter culture of Natives is the history. It hits quite the nerve with some of the people. The first thing argued over is the beginning of their culture, and the Land Bridge theory. John Two-Hawk a member of the Oglala Lakota nation argues the point that they have been here long before the last Ice Age, the proof is in the archeology. A discovery of artifacts that relate to a civilization that was around the last Ice Age, and points to 33,000 years older. John also speaks about the history of first contact, along with the first years of Europeans living here. The big sticking point for John Two-Hawk is the story of Thanksgiving and how we all got along. His version is that Native American before the official holiday was celebrated as giving thanks to the creator. The colonies never had them over, and two days early had actually massacred a village of 700 Native Americans. John developed a website, along with acceptations of his nation, to speak the truth, and correct misunderstands. On this site is the information above, along with the real truth about Columbus and several times he came and went. Along with John Two-Hawk, a fellow Native American Vine Deloria, Jr wrote several books about the history, and politics of Natives and the White man. One book talks about how the stories of some conflicts are missing important facts, or other view. How Native Americans are treated like second people not unlike the African Americans. Vine talks about the other stories that the United States ignores or doesn’t know of. Vine main focus was the politics of how natives were treated, and correcting the misunderstanding of their religion. While both John and Vine both provided information and the means to tell their story, the struggle was getting back all that they lost since the colonization of the Americas. While being brought into the Unites States has been good, there are some people who believe forced into the dominating culture is bad, as it takes away from what culture was all about. Religion is a hot topic with Native Americans, and for several reasons. The Native American believed in the Creator of all things, who provided the land, helped with the food, and means to survive every day. They would have ceremonies honoring the creator. They also had a people that the people before them were still around, as spirits who protected their tribe. Some aspects were in connection with animal spirits, which were part of the creator, to help guide them, and protect them. There are shamans who talked to the spirits, who also would provide visions, as a lot of it was connected to the supernatural. Since being forced to join the United States, several aspects of their religion was removed, or they were forced into accepting Christianity. Some of the fellow nations on the Reservations have conducted a mix of Christianity and Native American religion. As some of continue to do things that the ancestor did, believing in their right to worship that way. Politics also has been a hot debate that has people unfair advance with lands, positions in society and help. Vine, who became executive director of National Congress of American Indian, cleaned up the department, turned a profit after it was near bankruptcy, and helped tribes that were largely ignored by the Government. The NCAI over the time Vine served recognized tribes that were not, raising the number of 19 to 156. This lead to a strong belief of the counter cultures to fight for their rights, along with correcting the white man’s mistakes. Further exploring in books or the web expresses a strong desire to return to the old ways of the natives. While there is a strong counter culture there is a subculture to the Native Americans.

            The subculture is a group of people that is connected with the larger culture, while serving as separate culture. There is a fan of Native Americans who will buy the clothes, dress up as Natives, and collect Indian products. There are unofficial Natives who indulge into the culture with names picked from web sites, books, or anything native. At a local Pow Wow, there were venders who sold all sorts of Native American stuff, and there was people buying it up. One couple talked about finding an arrow head they been looking for, to add to their collection, and to have a piece of Native American culture. Another fan who went by the name of Mad-Wolf, was shopping for neck band pieces, so he could make one for his son’s birthday. He has collected arrow heads, pictures of wolves, has some Native outfits, and goes the different Indian places in the nearby areas. When asked about their choice of buy native stuff, they generally talk about being part of their culture, to express interests in them and connection with the past. While there is a subculture, it would appear that it runs alongside the counter culture.

            While the subculture is respectful way to the Native Americans, the is a counter culture that runs in and out of the subculture. At the Pow Wow along with the venders were some books that share the opinions of John and Vine and many more. Also having shirts, and pictures demonstrating a counter to today’s culture, like the first immigrants was Europeans. The biggest affect to both cultures is bringing light to a lot of issues that are not seen. It also brings better understanding of the world of Native Americans. The Indians have a history of not going to college, high suicides, and issues with drinking. These issues were known but lack of support let it happen longer than it should have. Strange as the counter culture can be on their views, they helped their own culture. People like Vine going against the norm went on to change many things, leading to a true understanding of Native Americans. Whether they were here a long time ago, or part of the migration, Native Americans are a spirited people, who thrive in today’s society with the hope of a better future. Their spirit is like a wolf, kind, gentle, and misunderstood, but will defend itself, and in packs. One’s history is usually defined by the people who are dominating the culture, but the Native Americans each year gains recognize that keeps their history alive, and to be celebrated.

The social conditions among human beings in the early 1600’s involved much naivety and ignorance, as well as greed and violence. The only Englishman who appeared to have any competence in dealing with the Native Americans in Jamestown was John Smith. The rest of the colonists, in general, seemed ignorant and delusional in their motives.

            As Price says, “The company urged the colonists to ‘have great care not to offend the naturals’ – that is, the natives” (Price, Pg. 31). The British sailing over to North America were operating under the assumption that the Native Americans would be receptive to them, not realizing that their mere presence there could be extremely offensive in and of itself. It’s absurd that the colonists made these assumptions about life on a continent they had never even seen before.

            The colonists did not do themselves any favors along the way. There was much bickering and disagreement among the British colonists, not to mention unintelligent decision making by most of those in charge. One such egregious error in judgment was the decision to make Powhatan a prince under King James. Newport “reckoned that Chief Powhatan’s crowning would fill him with such affection for the English that they would have no more worries in that department” (Price, Pg. 97). “But events had transpired differently: Newport returned from his expedition all but empty-handed” (Price, Pg. 97). Anyone with common sense (Smith for example) would have known how bad this idea was.

“Hence, unlike most Englishmen of his day, Smith believed it was important to understand and deal with the natives as they actually were, not as symbols of primitive evil or virtue.” (Price, Pg. 7). This is another example of the great divide between Smith and most of the rest of the colonists. The colonists had their heads up in the clouds, dreaming of gold, lazy lifestyles and perfect relations with the Natives. The colonists refused to face reality, unlike John Smith. Smith was the best thing that ever happened to the colony because his primary concern was the survival of the colony, not the selfish desires most of the people there were concerned with.

            More stupidity from the colonists occurred after Smith’s departure, causing rampant starvation. They spent much of the time leading up to the winter of 1609-1610 trying to defame John Smith’s character instead of getting provisions ready and making plans so that they could eat through the winter, a very childish decision. Had they followed Smith’s example of spreading out, the colonists would not have starved during this time. However, because they were cowards, unable to defend these areas, a lot of colonists starved to death needlessly.

            It seems, though, in later years (after John Smith had returned to England) that the British had smartened up to a degree. When they took Pocahontas hostage they probably did not realize that they had just secured peace with Powhatan. It turns out that Pocahontas had a soft spot for the English resulting from her childhood experiences with them. She refused to go back to the Powhatans when the English presented her to them. Taking her hostage turned out to be a brilliant move on Samuel Argall’s part.

            Ironically, the primary reason (other than John Smith’s leadership early on) that Jamestown was able to survive was Pocahontas. The British were extremely lucky that she had affection for them. It was based on the premise that peace was secured between the British and Powhatans in response to the marriage between her and Rolfe. Even though the Native Americans could have obliterated the English at one point, by the time this marriage had occurred it was too late for Powhatan.

            The intentions of the British colonists were certainly good natured and warm hearted. As Price states, “A 1609 tract of the Virginia Company pledged that the natives would be won over to English ways, ‘not by stormes of raging cruelties (as West India was converted) with rapiers point and musket shot, murdering so many millions of naked indians, as their stories doe relate, but by faire and loving meanes, suiting to our English natures.’” (Price, Pg. 10). Good natured or not, the Indians sensed that the English were trying to change their way of living.

            Looking at things from the Native Americans’ point of view, you can understand why things devolved into hostility between them and the British. Having dealt already with the Spanish, they were obviously very guarded against encroachment of their territory. Once again, the British would prove to be foolish and naïve. The fact that the Natives considered all lands, even those that appeared vacant, to be their own never even crossed the minds of the English. This is a gigantic part of the break down in relations between the two.

            Still, after a certain amount of time, and the marriage of Pocahontas and John Rolfe, things settled down. Eventually the Native Americans were almost treated as equal allies of the colonists. George Thorpe took this new stance to the extreme with his treatment of the Natives. He catered to their every whim, and severely punished those who offended any Natives. Generally the colony adopted this policy, attempting to assimilate the Natives more and more into English culture. “Yet most of the colony eventually became content to embrace Thorpe’s policy, and the company’s policy, of drawing the natives closer.” (Price, Pg. 203). The English certainly were persistent in their goal of assimilation, staying true to their imperialistic nature.

            It is amazing that the British colonies survived this time period. Pocahontas and John Smith (and Rolfe to an extent) were the primary reasons the colonies even survived. Had it not been for these people the United States probably wouldn’t even exist today. Despite the stupidity, ignorance and naivety of the English, they succeeded where the Spanish and French couldn’t.

     Price, David A. Love & Hate in Jamestown: John Smith, Pocahontas, and the Start of a New Nation. New York: Vintage Books, 2005.                       

Official language: Spanish

Land area: 758,450 sq mi/1,964,375 sq km

Population:  110,316,000

Dominant religion: Christianity

Capital: Mexico City

Current leader: President Felipe Calderon

Mexico is a large country in North America. It is the third largest country in North America and the northernmost country in Latin America. It is bordered by the United States to the north, the Gulf of Mexico to the east, Belize and Guatemala to the south and the Pacific Ocean to the west.

 Roughly 90 percent of Mexico’s population is of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry. About 5 percent are of African and Native American ancestry and another 5 percent are descendants of African slaves.

 Mexico has one of the world’s most industrialized economies and is one of the world’s largest market economies. It has vast natural resources. However, its wealth has been very unevenly distributed and has one of the largest gaps between the rich and poor. Many poor families live in slums next to neighborhoods of high-rise condominiums and sprawling mansions. Every year, thousands of Mexicans illegally cross the U.S. border in search of better opportunities. Frequent U.S. efforts to control the influx of illegals often put minor strains on relations between the two countries.

 The country is a leading producer cacao beans, coffee, corn, oranges, spices and sugar. Mexican cuisine, such as burritos, enchiladas and tacos, are among the world’s most popular foods.

 Mexico also depends heavily on tourism. Every year millions tourists flock to Mexico and resorts such as Acapulco, Cancun, Cozumel Island, Puerto Escondido and Puerto Vallarta have long been favorite ports of call for cruise ships. Cancun is also rapidly becoming a top destination for retirees.

 Before the arrival of the Spaniards Mexico had been the center of the mighty Aztec Empire, one of the most advanced Native American civilizations at the time. Spaniards first arrived in Mexico in 1517 and by 1521, after defeating the Aztec Spain had gained complete control of the area and made it a colony. Spain would rule for the next 300 years until 1821, when Mexico revolted and declared independence.

 In 1836, Texas seceded from Mexico and declared itself a republic. In 1845, Texas was annexed by United States, an act that angered Mexico, which still claimed Texas. After numerous border conflicts, the Mexican War erupted between the U.S. and Mexico and two years later, after losing war, Mexico gave up what is now Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming to the United States.

 The Mexican War crippled Mexico’s economy and it soon stopped paying debts that it owed the United Kingdom, France and Spain. Napoleon III of France sent troops to seize the country in 1862. The French occupation lasted until 1867 when, after pressure from the U.S. and fear of another war in Europe, Napoleon III withdrew his troops from Mexico.

 Since then, Mexico remained almost in a constant state of revolution, experiencing frequent military rule and dictatorship. In recent years, violent drug cartels have been a major source of problems for the Mexican government. Violence between the cartels and Mexican authorities has claimed over 5,000 lives in the past year alone. Because much of the fighting between the cartels and the authorities occurs in close proximity to the U.S. border there have been fears that the violence could spill into the U.S.

10,000 year old bones unearthed on the Southern California coast in 1976, some of the oldest skeletons in the Western Hemisphere and a scientific treasure, are also bones of contention. A local tribe claimed that the bones were their direct ancestors and demanded them back a few years ago. A recent federal regulation apparently sides with the many tribes that want old bones, often being studied or residing in museums, returned to them. At first glance, this might seem reasonable. We do want to give grandma a burial proper to our cultural beliefs.

At second glance, anyone with even a passing knowledge of how populations migrate, shift and blend over many generations will realize that it would be difficult, if not impossible for a group of people to say that their particular tribe descended directly from a group of people who lived in the area 500 generations ago. Even with a highly skilled genealogist, I’d be hard pressed to identify ancestral origins ten generations back. To claim a direct decent from 10,000 year old bones would be to ignore the mass human migrations that have taken place since humans first crossed the land bridge from Siberia.

People move, people invade, and the newcomers mix with the established population. People die off or move away when weather or soil productivity turn against them, and over 10,000 years a lot of changes can occur: Forests can become savannahs and then deserts. Direct descendents?  Well, if you go back far enough, we’re all direct descendents of a small population that arose in Africa’s rift zone. Yet, somehow I don’t feel all that personally connected to those cavemen. Perhaps those advocating for the return of “ancestral bones” do feel intimately connected to 1,000,000 year old cavemen. From reading their point of view, I suspect they might.

For the sake of argument, let’s assume that these bones are direct ancestors. Can some tribal member living in today’s Southern California say, with a straight face, while looking at these bones, “Ah yes, I remember great, great, great, great….. grandmother.”

In the hands of tribes, these bones get a ceremonial burial and everyone in the tribe gets a feel good moment. In the hands of scientists, they provide information about the various paths and obstacles encountered by humanity. They also serve to educate those who visit our museums.

However, federal regulations side with political correctness rather than reason and science.

The human race is known for being outlandishly cruel and cowardly in handling of different ethnic groups. Genocide, as it is called, is a massive “cleansing” of a race, ethnic group, or even anyone with a slight difference from another group. Genocide can be carried out by a government, a rebel group, or by average Joes. In most cases, a controlling political group of the area is responsible.  These groups seek to rid themselves of a group of people they see as a threat or nuisance. They blame them for economic troubles, much like Hitler did with Jewish people in Germany. They use a poor, in almost all cases, ethnic group as scapegoats. They torture and kill hundreds of thousands and sometimes millions of innocent people.

For genocide to be accurately categorized and compared in this essay, three main criteria need to be present in each specific case. The first of these criteria is for the acting group to view the genocide as a righteous act. They must fund the genocide in monetary terms and in an army goods and soldiers. In some cases, like in Germany, they will seek public approval and “campaign” for the vicious slayings. The victimized group must be viewed by the acting as a reason for their troubles and the ousting of the ethnic group will be the solution.

The second criteria are for large numbers of the ethnic group to be displaced, tortured and killed. In the end, this group must face the possibility of extinction and the genocide to have negative ramifications for an extended period of time after the genocide has ended. This could be extreme poverty, loss of social standing, and/or discrimination and segregation for decades.  The group must be physically forced out of their rightful land and to refugee camps.  Also, after the genocide is over, the oppressed group is seen as outcasts and usually receives no compensation or aid to help them regain their foothold in the world. 

Lastly, a third party, usually of other nations or groups, views these as atrocities. The third party must take a stance against the genocide or give aid to these people. This aid could be in the form of care packages, monetary support for a defense of some sort of military aid to fight against the oppressors.  However, not in all cases, will this criteria be meet and therefore, will not be considered genocide. This criterion is of the most importance and is needed for genocide to have taken place. If no one takes a stand against the group or views it as immoral, then the genocide can be said to be given backing and approval making it a plausible action. 

In other cases not included in this, one of three to be present or two of the three. However, for the accurate classification of genocide all three must be present. For instance, in some cases, a third party might not object to the crimes. This tends to be the situation for most other cases viewed to be genocide. For instance, Vietnam may be seen as genocide. Although according to these criteria it is not. America did not come into Vietnam for the reason of seeking a solution to a problem by killing an ethnic group. Their motives were to end a form of oppressive government. The two other criteria match in Vietnam. Thousands of people were displaced and brutally killed, and in America anti-war groups protested the war as immoral.

Part 2

The first example of genocide to be evaluated is the recent genocide of the people in Darfur. The government, in this case, acts as the oppressors. In 2003, a rebel group carried out attacks on government centers. The reason for the attacks, the native Africans were being neglected to establish Arab people in the region. The government was neglecting the needs of the poor Africans to cater to the Arabs. The government then sent out “self- defense” militia to control the rebel groups. Since 2003, the Africans have been killed and driven out of their rightful land. Many children are left without food, clothes, shelter and more importantly family from these vicious “self-defense” militia that raid villages and rape and kill.  Darfur has all three criteria and is a present day example of genocide.

        The native Africans in Darfur have been oppressed by the government, matching up with the first criteria. Much like in the Battle of Culloden, the government acts to squash rebel threats. The government approval and poor “policing” of the militia groups led to out of control behavior. The militia and armies run free and impose their own will viciously raping and killing everyone in sight. This is due to the distance of the government in relation to the area of the genocide. In Culloden, the slaughtering took place in Scotland, far enough out of the eyes and ears of the Crown. In Darfur, the section of the natives are located is a poor area away from the central government. Due to the distance, the groups are not controlled and commit horrible crimes against the innocent people. However, the government does not take action when they get wind of the crimes. They, instead, turn away and allow the vicious crimes to continue. This only supports the classification of genocide.

Regarding criteria number two, the people are displaced from their homes and farms. In Darfur, those who are lucky to escape are left to wander the dessert and settle in refugee camps where food is scarce. This is much like in Armenia, when Armenians were marched to death camps from their homeland and were killed. Although the genocide continues, one can pretty much assume that when it is the Africans will be discriminated by the Arabs and government for decades later. The remaining supporters of the genocide will forbid the Africans from getting a job and an education. Much like in Culloden were the Highlanders were continually looked down upon by the Lowlanders and Brits. The displacement of the people is not just physical in these cases, but also social that leads to years of prejudice.

          Today, many charities are established to raise money for care packages to send to refugee camps. The Peace Corps send hundreds of people to the camps to educate and give them food and shelter. This third party action is the third criteria. The African Union has sent 7,000 troops to defend the people from the government deployed militia. [BBC News] The United Nations have also sought to help the Africans. They have called for peace deals and some progress has been made. All these third parties prove that the action taken by the government is brutal and immoral.

     Darfur is a great present-day example of genocide. All three criteria are met. The government approval, the displaced and murdered civilians and lastly, a stance taken against the oppressors and aid given to the oppressed. Although the genocide is not over, it still provides a good comparison to genocides of the past and for the future. Darfur is a tragic and grotesque example of the racial prejudices that are the root of genocide. 

Part 3

The last example of genocide is of the Native Americans. They were taken advantage of by the white Europeans and then kicked out from their prosperous land, west to less inhabitable. Eventually, when the United States was formed, the Native Americans lost almost all their lands and were forced to live on barren wastelands called Reservations. “The most massive act of genocide in the history of the world” is used by David E. Stannard in his book, American Holocaust, to describe the Native American treatments. The Europeans and later Americans culturally and physically killed the Native Americans. They were raped of their land and their culture. Today they are still facing extinction. They have lost a huge amount of their land and culture due to the insensitive and immoral actions of the oppressors.

When explorers came over to the New World, they were given grants by their government (usually King or Queen) giving them “rightful” ownership of the land. To the explorers this meant to use whatever means necessary to insure a safe haven for themselves. This usually meant kicking the Native Americans off their land, stealing their property and killing them if need be. Since the grant gave them approval by the government, criteria one is meet. The government, like in Culloden, sent over troops to a foreign land to crush any opposition to the government’s claims. Soldiers aboard the ships would use force to take away the Native Americans and make them slaves for labor. 

When United States of America was founded, the Louisiana Purchase allowed for further exploration of the west and led for many Native American’s land to be stolen by the Americans.

However, these people were not left out to dry. They were given wasteland reservations to live on. To get to these reservations they had to walk hundreds of miles to the designated areas, much like the Armenians. In these reservations, the Native Americans had little food and were constantly watched by white troops. Their freedom to follow the buffalo was restricted and due to this they had less food. Not only did this affect their food resources, this also took away their culture. For hundreds of years the Native Americans followed the buffalo as they roamed and relied heavily on them as a major food source.  Nowadays, the Native Americans are still looked down upon and have trouble being socially accepted. They are still discriminated and this qualifies them for the second criteria. One account has over 700 Sioux tribesmen dieing in self defense in one battle. The Sioux were resisting the movement of their tribe in the Dakotas to Oklahoma reservations. [Disrupting the Natives] 

Today there are many groups and organizations trying to preserve what is left of the Native American Culture, in forms of museums and libraries. Also, there are some groups that are seeking reparation for the descendants that still feel the repercussions of the genocide. These groups, taking a stand against the immoral actions of past governments, meet criteria three. “National Relief Charities (NRC) provides program services that benefit Native Americans throughout the United States. Our mission is ‘to help Native American people improve the quality of their lives by providing opportunities for them to bring about positive changes in their communities.’” [National Relief Charities] The mission of this charity, and charities like this one, try to bring a better future for Native Americans by continuing the culture of the past. 

The Native Americans have faced the longest racial genocide in history. Since the 15th century Europeans and later Americans have socially outcast them, stripped them of their traditions, culture and heritage, and killed thousands upon thousands of them. Unfortunately this genocide can not be swept under the rug, like many Americans try to do, and the outcomes still affect their and our society. The genocide was bloody, brutal and belittling to a people with a rich tradition and wealth of knowledge and art to share. 

                                              Works Cited

BBC News Website
   Q&A Sudan’s Darfur Conflict
HYPERLINK “http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3496731.stm” http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3496731.stm

End of the Oregon Trail Center
Disrupting the Natives
 HYPERLINK “http://www.endoftheoregontrail.org/road2oregon/sa19indians.html” http://www.endoftheoregontrail.org/road2oregon/sa19indians.html

National Relief Charities

Mission Statement                           

 HYPERLINK “http://www.nrcprograms.org/” http://www.nrcprograms.org/

In Darfur, My Camera Was Not Nearly Enough
Brian Steidle — Washington Post, Sunday, March 20, 2005; Page B02
 HYPERLINK “http://www.ushmm.org/conscience/alert/darfur/steidle/?gclid=CN3gy8Dj2YgCFQtRGgodYRDpkg” http://www.ushmm.org/conscience/alert/darfur/steidle/?gclid=CN3gy8Dj2YgCFQtRGgodYRDpkg

American Indian Holocaust
 HYPERLINK “http://www.unitednativeamerica.com/aiholocaust.html” http://www.unitednativeamerica.com/aiholocaust.html

American Holocaust
by: David E. Stannard
November, 1993

The Battle of Culloden Film

New Yorker Article 

DEAD RECKONING
The Armenian genocide and the politics of silence.
By ELIZABETH KOLBERT
Issue of 2006-11-06
Posted 2006-10-30

Native American Indian Saint Decreed

On Monday, Dec. 19, this year, Pope Benedict XVI decreed that the recovery of Jake Finkbonner, an American Indian boy of the Lummi tribe, from the flesh-eating bacteria Necrotizing Fasciitis, or Streptococcus A, that in 2006 nearly killed him was indeed a miracle which has been attributed to Blessed Kateri Tekakwitha.

This statement has enabled the first ever canonization, in the Catholic Church, of an American Indian saint. Evidence from medic who treated  Jake, along with Vatican doctors led to the same conclusion, leaving 11 year old Jake mother Elsa are proud. the pair believed utterly that praying to Blessed Kateri led to his surviving the flesh-eating bacteria.

It was on February 11, 2006, near the end a basketball game that a small cut in his mouth allowed the aggressive bacteria to race through his bloodstream. so bad was it that doctors, to stop the spread and save him, surgically removed damaged flesh daily, also placing the toddler in a hyperbaric chamber, every day over two weeks, at the Seattle Virginia Mason Medical Center to deliver oxygen and help impede infection progress.

Over nine horrific weeks, doctors felt obliged to prepare the family for his impending death, and the deeply faithful Finkbonners prayed at their local church and the one on the Lummi reservation, where, as Jake fought for life, parishioners asked Blessed Kateri for her help.

Later, the Catholic News Service issued a story on the  Blessed Kateri Doctors apparently believed that their medical expertise was not enough to save him, thinking every night he was going to die. It was long-term family friend the Rev. Tim Sauer who advised the Finkbonners to pray to Blessed Kateri – the patroness for American Indians – akin to asking her to pray to God, on Jake’s behalf, to perform a miracle, as he is of Lummi descent.

This Vatican decision, that a miracle beyond the explanation of medicine, only attributable to intercession on behalf of Jake by Blessed Kateri, born in 1656 had occurred reaffirmed his devout Catholic family faith, no question that it was a miracle in their minds.

American Indian Catholics throughout the USA are celebrating the , canonization, something that many feel has been too long in the making, and well deserved, so that a great number of native Americans are  happy today.

It was after Jake had recovered, in 2006, that Rev. Sauer sent the Archbishop in Seattle a letter about a possible miracle, after which Catholic Church investigators interviewed all people concerned who had testified to praying for intercession by the Blessed Kateri .

These same investigators were given his medical records along with information from the mother, who kept Jake’s doctors aware of the extensive legal process – dealing with both the theological and the scientific, medical natures of the supposed miracle – a very rigorous process receiving very serious scrutiny before any announcement can be made

Almost six years from that basketball court scrape that almost cost him so dearly, Jake bears still the scars on his face and neck, along with others across his chest from shoulder to shoulder and on his scalp from ear to ear. Having undergone 29 surgeries, this feisty11-year-old is otherwise healthy, very normal, likes to play video games a lot and is really looking forward to meeting the pope. Miracles, it seems, do happen after all.

Official language: English

Land area: 8,867 sq mi/22,966 sq km

Population: 315,000

Dominant religion: Christianity

Capital: Belmopan

Current leader: Prime Minister Dean Barrow

Belize is a small country in Central America, lying on the southeast coast of the Yucatan Peninsula. It is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the east, Guatemala to the south and west and Mexico to the north. With a population of only 315,000, it is the most thinly populated on country in Central America.

 Belize is a very ethnically diverse country. About the half of the people are of mixed European and Native American ancestry, about a quarter are Creoles (people of African and European ancestry) and most of the rest are Maya Indians and people of mixed African and Native American ancestry. Most of the people are poor and unemployment is high. The country has a shortage of technicians and professionals, especially doctors, because most Belizeans who learn these occupations relocate to other English-speaking countries for better opportunities.

 Sugar cane, bananas, grapefruit, and oranges are the country’s chief crops and processed sugar is the main export. Its industries include sugar refining, lumbering, clothes and cement.

 The Spaniards arrived in the 1520’s and made the area part of Guatemala. But Spain did very little to exercise control over the area and soon lost it to the British and in 1862 the United Kingdom named it the Colony of British Honduras. In 1964 it became a self-governing territory and was renamed Belize and it became independent in 1981.

 ‘Tis a wonderful morning, waking up in the land of the lost methinks. As a time traveler, I am well impressed by what I see  wealth; nobody wore a normal fabric as most do only gold and silver was worn in the mist. The food made by a peninsular lady was appetizing. All the people there were real peninsular with no mixture on any kind, I call them pure Spaniard or mainland Spaniard. The held the highest position of government and Catholic Church, because they were not outlanders. During the colonial times, the peninsulares had a good connection with the crown and also performed jobs such as Audencia judges, audencia presidents and viceroys. The peninsulares truly had a top level in their society.

  The Mestizos

 How did the Native Americans ended up with the Spaniards? Most might ask. Well in my own belief, I think that the Spaniards  had  Native Americans as their slaves. There were just a little differences between the Mestizos and the pure Spaniards.  Mestizos were mixtures of Europeans and Americans. Their had limited economy and job opportunities. Their work as servants or artists in their society.

  The Creoles

The creoles were distinguished from the natives, blacks and also born in the New World.They had a low rank than the Peninsulares. They weren’t so respected as the pure Spaniards. They owned ranches, plantations, and mines. They were Spanish speakers. Creoles hold good positions in the government and also owned lands.

One vital role of the coyote was being associated as creator of the world and of its inhabitants. Each group had its own version of events, but nonetheless Coyote played a role in the creation of the world and the creation of human beings. The creation of the world, as told by the Yokut tribe settled in the California Culture area, had Coyote creating the world with the help of animal friends. In the tale The Beginning of the World, aside from a small strip of land, there was nothing but water on earth. Residing on the strip of land was Coyote and Eagle. One day, the two animals had sent Turtle to retrieve a piece of earth from the bottom of the water. Upon returning, the earth appeared to be discolored. However, Coyote and Eagle took the speck of earth and uses it to make earth as it is now. Also made were six women and six men. These people were sent in different directions, which would eventually become the different tribes. The Coyote and Eagle, although, had forgotten to provide a stable source of food for the people. As a result, the people had begun to eat the earth. In a panic, the Eagle sends for Dove to find a resolution. And so, with the help of Dove and a single grain of meal, the earth was showered with seeds and fruit. With the help of a steady supply of food, the population increased and people began to spread out (Erdoes and Ortiz 1998: 3). Similar to the creation of the world, the creation of mankind also involved some sort of transfiguration.

In the Nez Perce, or traditionally, Nimu Puu ’s origin story, Coyote formed the Nez Perce people after a battle with a monster. Set in a time before mankind came to be, Coyote saves the people, or rather, the animals that had been devoured by the Monster. Coyote enters Monster through its mouth, where he searches for the heart. Along the way he encounters some people, whom he then tells to collect some wood. Arriving at the heart, he starts a fire, burning the monster from the inside. As the fire burned near the heart, Coyote began cutting the heart out. At the same time, he tells the people to now collect the Monster’s bones and take them to the monster’s orifices. When Coyote then finally manages to cut out the heart, the people kick the bones out of the Monster’s body and escape to the outside. Coyote then smears the Monster’s blood on his hands, sprinkling it on the bones to bring back all who had died inside of the Monster. Using the rest of the monster, Coyote distributes parts of the body throughout the country, forming what would become different Native American groups. An upset fox then asks why Coyote left nothing for the locals. The clever Coyote then uses water to wash off the remaining blood. Sprinkling the bloody water onto the local regions, Coyote formed the Nez Perce people (Walker and Matthews 1998: 9-11 ).

Aside from being creator of the Earth, the Coyote was also a figure that taught the morals accepted not accepted in society. Most of the time, Coyote is seen in various situations, in which he has done something wrong. As a result, Coyote suffers the consequences. The Wintu tribe of the California culture area told the humorous tale of Coyote whose cockiness led to trouble in Coyote and the Bullfish. In the tale, the Coyote is a smug bully who teases the Bullfish for being small. Coyote eggs the Bullfish on to swallow his toe, but the Bullfish ignores him. The taunting continues, until Bullfish finally has had enough and swallows Coyote whole. The animal folk begin missing Coyote, and soon start searching for him. A doctor receives a vision that Coyote is was under the water, alive, and in the Bullfish’s belly. In an attempt to hide himself, the Bullfish turns the water muddy. However the attempt was in vain as a water bird named Mud-Spear spots the Bullfish’s tail and spears the fish. Cutting the Bullfish open, out comes Coyote who assures everyone that he had only been sleeping (Margolin and Montijo 1995: 101-101). As this story had dealt with what was not acceptable social behavior, other subjects also included ethics.

Over in the Great Basin, the Coyote was no different than the ones depicted in other tribes. The Paiute, known for their key resource of pine nuts, told the story of how Coyote stole the pine nuts. In The Theft of Pine Nuts, Coyote stumbles upon a camp where he sees a little boy holding some pine nuts. Coyote asks for some, but is given a watered down pine nut drink. No matter what the Coyote tried, the drink would not stay put-it would always come right back out. Defeated, Coyote returns home to his brother Wolf. Coyote then tells everybody about the pine nuts he had seen over at the camp. Feeling egotistical, he tells the people to call him Tall Fellow, namely, a Tall Fellow who found everything. But the people ignored him and continued to call him Coyote. Upon arriving at the camp, the band of animals soon learned that the people had hidden the pine nuts. The greedy coyote, wanting to steal the pine nuts for himself, asks Mouse to help look for the nuts. It was no use, the pine nuts were nowhere to be found. It was not until Woodpecker came along that the nuts were found. However as a result, the people chased the animals. The animals ran, but all were killed except for Coyote who had run the fastest. Miraculously, once the people had left, all who had been killed rose from the dead. On the way home, Coyote and his friends encounter another obstacle-an ice wall blocking their path. Coyote tried to break the ice, but nothing he did would work. Finally with the help of Crow, the animals were able to get past the ice and return home. Eating the pine nuts, Coyote and Wolf decide to take some pine nuts and raise them. Putting the pine nuts in their mouth and spitting it over the mountains, the pine nuts were left to grow. Coyote however had been crafty. He had eaten most of his pine nuts before spitting them out. The end result was that Wolf grew pine nuts and all that Coyote grew was juniper trees (Ramsey 1977: 247-248).

There are many tales involving Coyote in various situations, but all have common factors. For example, in almost every story, Coyote interacts with another animal. Whether it is the animal assisting Coyote or meeting him along the way, there is always some sort of interaction between the animals. Some of the times Coyote works with these animals to achieve a common goal. Other times the animal helps the Coyote on his latest venture. Also in the creation myths, Coyote either along with others or with some help, uses a simple material to make mankind or the world. Personality wise, Coyote is usually depicted as cunning, boastful, and even as the “master of… creative deception.” (Hyde 1999: 17) But the coyote’s cunningness does not allow him to escape trouble completely. In many of the tales Coyote’s own hubris becomes the source of his problems. This can be seen in Coyote and Bullfish, where an overconfident Coyote relentlessly mocks Bullfish, and even denies ever being in trouble once saved. Prideful Coyote can also be found when Coyote feels that he should be called Tall Fellow who finds everything, simply because he had happened upon pine nuts at a human camp. All of these tales serve as an explanation-whether of the origins of the world or the consequences of certain actions, these tales are helpful in teaching. And so, Coyote becomes an important part of the natives’ culture.

Within every culture, there is always an important figure in their beliefs. This figure becomes central in daily life. The coyote was more than just an animal to the natives. Instead, the natives regarded coyotes as somewhat of a hero. After all, the coyote is the creator and helper. As seen in the Yokut’s Beginning of the World, the coyote provided them with a supply of food-crops that if tended, would replenish every year. In other tales, the coyote also taught the people how to catch salmon (Hyde 1999: 18). But that was not all that the coyote taught. The numerous adventures of the coyote served to teach people the outcomes of immorality. It showed people that nothing is without consequence. For example, it is learned that arrogance is a bad thing, as it led to Coyote being swallowed by the fish. The same goes for stealing the pine nuts. By cheating and eating the seeds, Coyote only cheated himself. All the while, the telling of these stories helps keep their tradition alive. Young children are told these stories, which not only teaches them right from wrong, but also teaches them about their own culture. For example, when hearing how the world was formed, the children learn about why they exist. That origin tale is unique to their culture. As a result, the way they view the world is shaped by these tales.

All of these tales are far from silly. While on the surface the tales can be humorous, underneath there is a deeper meaning. In every tale was a lesson to be learned-whether it was of the origin of the world or just that of a commentary on morality-the coyote was apparent in all of them. The coyote trickster was more than just a character–it was a part of native life, and certainly a figure kept close to their hearts. It did not matter which tribe the story originated from, or what the story was. In the end, they all had one purpose: explaining the world around them.

References

Erdoes, Richard and Alfonso Ortiz

1998 American Indian Trickster Tales. New York: Penguin Books

Hyde, Lewis

1999 Trickster Makes This World. New York: North Point Press

Margolin, Malcolm and Yolanda Montijo

1995. Native Ways: California Indian Stories and Memories. California: Heyday Books

Matthews, Daniel N. and Deward E. Walker

1998 Nez Perce Coyote Tales: The Myth Cycle. Wyoming: University of Oklahoma Press

Ramsey, Jarold

1977. Coyote Was Going There: Indian Literature of the Oregon Country. Washington: University of Washington Press