10,000 year old bones unearthed on the Southern California coast in 1976, some of the oldest skeletons in the Western Hemisphere and a scientific treasure, are also bones of contention. A local tribe claimed that the bones were their direct ancestors and demanded them back a few years ago. A recent federal regulation apparently sides with the many tribes that want old bones, often being studied or residing in museums, returned to them. At first glance, this might seem reasonable. We do want to give grandma a burial proper to our cultural beliefs.

At second glance, anyone with even a passing knowledge of how populations migrate, shift and blend over many generations will realize that it would be difficult, if not impossible for a group of people to say that their particular tribe descended directly from a group of people who lived in the area 500 generations ago. Even with a highly skilled genealogist, I’d be hard pressed to identify ancestral origins ten generations back. To claim a direct decent from 10,000 year old bones would be to ignore the mass human migrations that have taken place since humans first crossed the land bridge from Siberia.

People move, people invade, and the newcomers mix with the established population. People die off or move away when weather or soil productivity turn against them, and over 10,000 years a lot of changes can occur: Forests can become savannahs and then deserts. Direct descendents?  Well, if you go back far enough, we’re all direct descendents of a small population that arose in Africa’s rift zone. Yet, somehow I don’t feel all that personally connected to those cavemen. Perhaps those advocating for the return of “ancestral bones” do feel intimately connected to 1,000,000 year old cavemen. From reading their point of view, I suspect they might.

For the sake of argument, let’s assume that these bones are direct ancestors. Can some tribal member living in today’s Southern California say, with a straight face, while looking at these bones, “Ah yes, I remember great, great, great, great….. grandmother.”

In the hands of tribes, these bones get a ceremonial burial and everyone in the tribe gets a feel good moment. In the hands of scientists, they provide information about the various paths and obstacles encountered by humanity. They also serve to educate those who visit our museums.

However, federal regulations side with political correctness rather than reason and science.

The human race is known for being outlandishly cruel and cowardly in handling of different ethnic groups. Genocide, as it is called, is a massive “cleansing” of a race, ethnic group, or even anyone with a slight difference from another group. Genocide can be carried out by a government, a rebel group, or by average Joes. In most cases, a controlling political group of the area is responsible.  These groups seek to rid themselves of a group of people they see as a threat or nuisance. They blame them for economic troubles, much like Hitler did with Jewish people in Germany. They use a poor, in almost all cases, ethnic group as scapegoats. They torture and kill hundreds of thousands and sometimes millions of innocent people.

For genocide to be accurately categorized and compared in this essay, three main criteria need to be present in each specific case. The first of these criteria is for the acting group to view the genocide as a righteous act. They must fund the genocide in monetary terms and in an army goods and soldiers. In some cases, like in Germany, they will seek public approval and “campaign” for the vicious slayings. The victimized group must be viewed by the acting as a reason for their troubles and the ousting of the ethnic group will be the solution.

The second criteria are for large numbers of the ethnic group to be displaced, tortured and killed. In the end, this group must face the possibility of extinction and the genocide to have negative ramifications for an extended period of time after the genocide has ended. This could be extreme poverty, loss of social standing, and/or discrimination and segregation for decades.  The group must be physically forced out of their rightful land and to refugee camps.  Also, after the genocide is over, the oppressed group is seen as outcasts and usually receives no compensation or aid to help them regain their foothold in the world. 

Lastly, a third party, usually of other nations or groups, views these as atrocities. The third party must take a stance against the genocide or give aid to these people. This aid could be in the form of care packages, monetary support for a defense of some sort of military aid to fight against the oppressors.  However, not in all cases, will this criteria be meet and therefore, will not be considered genocide. This criterion is of the most importance and is needed for genocide to have taken place. If no one takes a stand against the group or views it as immoral, then the genocide can be said to be given backing and approval making it a plausible action. 

In other cases not included in this, one of three to be present or two of the three. However, for the accurate classification of genocide all three must be present. For instance, in some cases, a third party might not object to the crimes. This tends to be the situation for most other cases viewed to be genocide. For instance, Vietnam may be seen as genocide. Although according to these criteria it is not. America did not come into Vietnam for the reason of seeking a solution to a problem by killing an ethnic group. Their motives were to end a form of oppressive government. The two other criteria match in Vietnam. Thousands of people were displaced and brutally killed, and in America anti-war groups protested the war as immoral.

Part 2

The first example of genocide to be evaluated is the recent genocide of the people in Darfur. The government, in this case, acts as the oppressors. In 2003, a rebel group carried out attacks on government centers. The reason for the attacks, the native Africans were being neglected to establish Arab people in the region. The government was neglecting the needs of the poor Africans to cater to the Arabs. The government then sent out “self- defense” militia to control the rebel groups. Since 2003, the Africans have been killed and driven out of their rightful land. Many children are left without food, clothes, shelter and more importantly family from these vicious “self-defense” militia that raid villages and rape and kill.  Darfur has all three criteria and is a present day example of genocide.

        The native Africans in Darfur have been oppressed by the government, matching up with the first criteria. Much like in the Battle of Culloden, the government acts to squash rebel threats. The government approval and poor “policing” of the militia groups led to out of control behavior. The militia and armies run free and impose their own will viciously raping and killing everyone in sight. This is due to the distance of the government in relation to the area of the genocide. In Culloden, the slaughtering took place in Scotland, far enough out of the eyes and ears of the Crown. In Darfur, the section of the natives are located is a poor area away from the central government. Due to the distance, the groups are not controlled and commit horrible crimes against the innocent people. However, the government does not take action when they get wind of the crimes. They, instead, turn away and allow the vicious crimes to continue. This only supports the classification of genocide.

Regarding criteria number two, the people are displaced from their homes and farms. In Darfur, those who are lucky to escape are left to wander the dessert and settle in refugee camps where food is scarce. This is much like in Armenia, when Armenians were marched to death camps from their homeland and were killed. Although the genocide continues, one can pretty much assume that when it is the Africans will be discriminated by the Arabs and government for decades later. The remaining supporters of the genocide will forbid the Africans from getting a job and an education. Much like in Culloden were the Highlanders were continually looked down upon by the Lowlanders and Brits. The displacement of the people is not just physical in these cases, but also social that leads to years of prejudice.

          Today, many charities are established to raise money for care packages to send to refugee camps. The Peace Corps send hundreds of people to the camps to educate and give them food and shelter. This third party action is the third criteria. The African Union has sent 7,000 troops to defend the people from the government deployed militia. [BBC News] The United Nations have also sought to help the Africans. They have called for peace deals and some progress has been made. All these third parties prove that the action taken by the government is brutal and immoral.

     Darfur is a great present-day example of genocide. All three criteria are met. The government approval, the displaced and murdered civilians and lastly, a stance taken against the oppressors and aid given to the oppressed. Although the genocide is not over, it still provides a good comparison to genocides of the past and for the future. Darfur is a tragic and grotesque example of the racial prejudices that are the root of genocide. 

Part 3

The last example of genocide is of the Native Americans. They were taken advantage of by the white Europeans and then kicked out from their prosperous land, west to less inhabitable. Eventually, when the United States was formed, the Native Americans lost almost all their lands and were forced to live on barren wastelands called Reservations. “The most massive act of genocide in the history of the world” is used by David E. Stannard in his book, American Holocaust, to describe the Native American treatments. The Europeans and later Americans culturally and physically killed the Native Americans. They were raped of their land and their culture. Today they are still facing extinction. They have lost a huge amount of their land and culture due to the insensitive and immoral actions of the oppressors.

When explorers came over to the New World, they were given grants by their government (usually King or Queen) giving them “rightful” ownership of the land. To the explorers this meant to use whatever means necessary to insure a safe haven for themselves. This usually meant kicking the Native Americans off their land, stealing their property and killing them if need be. Since the grant gave them approval by the government, criteria one is meet. The government, like in Culloden, sent over troops to a foreign land to crush any opposition to the government’s claims. Soldiers aboard the ships would use force to take away the Native Americans and make them slaves for labor. 

When United States of America was founded, the Louisiana Purchase allowed for further exploration of the west and led for many Native American’s land to be stolen by the Americans.

However, these people were not left out to dry. They were given wasteland reservations to live on. To get to these reservations they had to walk hundreds of miles to the designated areas, much like the Armenians. In these reservations, the Native Americans had little food and were constantly watched by white troops. Their freedom to follow the buffalo was restricted and due to this they had less food. Not only did this affect their food resources, this also took away their culture. For hundreds of years the Native Americans followed the buffalo as they roamed and relied heavily on them as a major food source.  Nowadays, the Native Americans are still looked down upon and have trouble being socially accepted. They are still discriminated and this qualifies them for the second criteria. One account has over 700 Sioux tribesmen dieing in self defense in one battle. The Sioux were resisting the movement of their tribe in the Dakotas to Oklahoma reservations. [Disrupting the Natives] 

Today there are many groups and organizations trying to preserve what is left of the Native American Culture, in forms of museums and libraries. Also, there are some groups that are seeking reparation for the descendants that still feel the repercussions of the genocide. These groups, taking a stand against the immoral actions of past governments, meet criteria three. “National Relief Charities (NRC) provides program services that benefit Native Americans throughout the United States. Our mission is ‘to help Native American people improve the quality of their lives by providing opportunities for them to bring about positive changes in their communities.’” [National Relief Charities] The mission of this charity, and charities like this one, try to bring a better future for Native Americans by continuing the culture of the past. 

The Native Americans have faced the longest racial genocide in history. Since the 15th century Europeans and later Americans have socially outcast them, stripped them of their traditions, culture and heritage, and killed thousands upon thousands of them. Unfortunately this genocide can not be swept under the rug, like many Americans try to do, and the outcomes still affect their and our society. The genocide was bloody, brutal and belittling to a people with a rich tradition and wealth of knowledge and art to share. 

                                              Works Cited

BBC News Website
   Q&A Sudan’s Darfur Conflict
HYPERLINK “http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3496731.stm” http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3496731.stm

End of the Oregon Trail Center
Disrupting the Natives
 HYPERLINK “http://www.endoftheoregontrail.org/road2oregon/sa19indians.html” http://www.endoftheoregontrail.org/road2oregon/sa19indians.html

National Relief Charities

Mission Statement                           

 HYPERLINK “http://www.nrcprograms.org/” http://www.nrcprograms.org/

In Darfur, My Camera Was Not Nearly Enough
Brian Steidle — Washington Post, Sunday, March 20, 2005; Page B02
 HYPERLINK “http://www.ushmm.org/conscience/alert/darfur/steidle/?gclid=CN3gy8Dj2YgCFQtRGgodYRDpkg” http://www.ushmm.org/conscience/alert/darfur/steidle/?gclid=CN3gy8Dj2YgCFQtRGgodYRDpkg

American Indian Holocaust
 HYPERLINK “http://www.unitednativeamerica.com/aiholocaust.html” http://www.unitednativeamerica.com/aiholocaust.html

American Holocaust
by: David E. Stannard
November, 1993

The Battle of Culloden Film

New Yorker Article 

DEAD RECKONING
The Armenian genocide and the politics of silence.
By ELIZABETH KOLBERT
Issue of 2006-11-06
Posted 2006-10-30

Native American Indian Saint Decreed

On Monday, Dec. 19, this year, Pope Benedict XVI decreed that the recovery of Jake Finkbonner, an American Indian boy of the Lummi tribe, from the flesh-eating bacteria Necrotizing Fasciitis, or Streptococcus A, that in 2006 nearly killed him was indeed a miracle which has been attributed to Blessed Kateri Tekakwitha.

This statement has enabled the first ever canonization, in the Catholic Church, of an American Indian saint. Evidence from medic who treated  Jake, along with Vatican doctors led to the same conclusion, leaving 11 year old Jake mother Elsa are proud. the pair believed utterly that praying to Blessed Kateri led to his surviving the flesh-eating bacteria.

It was on February 11, 2006, near the end a basketball game that a small cut in his mouth allowed the aggressive bacteria to race through his bloodstream. so bad was it that doctors, to stop the spread and save him, surgically removed damaged flesh daily, also placing the toddler in a hyperbaric chamber, every day over two weeks, at the Seattle Virginia Mason Medical Center to deliver oxygen and help impede infection progress.

Over nine horrific weeks, doctors felt obliged to prepare the family for his impending death, and the deeply faithful Finkbonners prayed at their local church and the one on the Lummi reservation, where, as Jake fought for life, parishioners asked Blessed Kateri for her help.

Later, the Catholic News Service issued a story on the  Blessed Kateri Doctors apparently believed that their medical expertise was not enough to save him, thinking every night he was going to die. It was long-term family friend the Rev. Tim Sauer who advised the Finkbonners to pray to Blessed Kateri – the patroness for American Indians – akin to asking her to pray to God, on Jake’s behalf, to perform a miracle, as he is of Lummi descent.

This Vatican decision, that a miracle beyond the explanation of medicine, only attributable to intercession on behalf of Jake by Blessed Kateri, born in 1656 had occurred reaffirmed his devout Catholic family faith, no question that it was a miracle in their minds.

American Indian Catholics throughout the USA are celebrating the , canonization, something that many feel has been too long in the making, and well deserved, so that a great number of native Americans are  happy today.

It was after Jake had recovered, in 2006, that Rev. Sauer sent the Archbishop in Seattle a letter about a possible miracle, after which Catholic Church investigators interviewed all people concerned who had testified to praying for intercession by the Blessed Kateri .

These same investigators were given his medical records along with information from the mother, who kept Jake’s doctors aware of the extensive legal process – dealing with both the theological and the scientific, medical natures of the supposed miracle – a very rigorous process receiving very serious scrutiny before any announcement can be made

Almost six years from that basketball court scrape that almost cost him so dearly, Jake bears still the scars on his face and neck, along with others across his chest from shoulder to shoulder and on his scalp from ear to ear. Having undergone 29 surgeries, this feisty11-year-old is otherwise healthy, very normal, likes to play video games a lot and is really looking forward to meeting the pope. Miracles, it seems, do happen after all.

Official language: English

Land area: 8,867 sq mi/22,966 sq km

Population: 315,000

Dominant religion: Christianity

Capital: Belmopan

Current leader: Prime Minister Dean Barrow

Belize is a small country in Central America, lying on the southeast coast of the Yucatan Peninsula. It is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the east, Guatemala to the south and west and Mexico to the north. With a population of only 315,000, it is the most thinly populated on country in Central America.

 Belize is a very ethnically diverse country. About the half of the people are of mixed European and Native American ancestry, about a quarter are Creoles (people of African and European ancestry) and most of the rest are Maya Indians and people of mixed African and Native American ancestry. Most of the people are poor and unemployment is high. The country has a shortage of technicians and professionals, especially doctors, because most Belizeans who learn these occupations relocate to other English-speaking countries for better opportunities.

 Sugar cane, bananas, grapefruit, and oranges are the country’s chief crops and processed sugar is the main export. Its industries include sugar refining, lumbering, clothes and cement.

 The Spaniards arrived in the 1520’s and made the area part of Guatemala. But Spain did very little to exercise control over the area and soon lost it to the British and in 1862 the United Kingdom named it the Colony of British Honduras. In 1964 it became a self-governing territory and was renamed Belize and it became independent in 1981.

 ‘Tis a wonderful morning, waking up in the land of the lost methinks. As a time traveler, I am well impressed by what I see  wealth; nobody wore a normal fabric as most do only gold and silver was worn in the mist. The food made by a peninsular lady was appetizing. All the people there were real peninsular with no mixture on any kind, I call them pure Spaniard or mainland Spaniard. The held the highest position of government and Catholic Church, because they were not outlanders. During the colonial times, the peninsulares had a good connection with the crown and also performed jobs such as Audencia judges, audencia presidents and viceroys. The peninsulares truly had a top level in their society.

  The Mestizos

 How did the Native Americans ended up with the Spaniards? Most might ask. Well in my own belief, I think that the Spaniards  had  Native Americans as their slaves. There were just a little differences between the Mestizos and the pure Spaniards.  Mestizos were mixtures of Europeans and Americans. Their had limited economy and job opportunities. Their work as servants or artists in their society.

  The Creoles

The creoles were distinguished from the natives, blacks and also born in the New World.They had a low rank than the Peninsulares. They weren’t so respected as the pure Spaniards. They owned ranches, plantations, and mines. They were Spanish speakers. Creoles hold good positions in the government and also owned lands.

One vital role of the coyote was being associated as creator of the world and of its inhabitants. Each group had its own version of events, but nonetheless Coyote played a role in the creation of the world and the creation of human beings. The creation of the world, as told by the Yokut tribe settled in the California Culture area, had Coyote creating the world with the help of animal friends. In the tale The Beginning of the World, aside from a small strip of land, there was nothing but water on earth. Residing on the strip of land was Coyote and Eagle. One day, the two animals had sent Turtle to retrieve a piece of earth from the bottom of the water. Upon returning, the earth appeared to be discolored. However, Coyote and Eagle took the speck of earth and uses it to make earth as it is now. Also made were six women and six men. These people were sent in different directions, which would eventually become the different tribes. The Coyote and Eagle, although, had forgotten to provide a stable source of food for the people. As a result, the people had begun to eat the earth. In a panic, the Eagle sends for Dove to find a resolution. And so, with the help of Dove and a single grain of meal, the earth was showered with seeds and fruit. With the help of a steady supply of food, the population increased and people began to spread out (Erdoes and Ortiz 1998: 3). Similar to the creation of the world, the creation of mankind also involved some sort of transfiguration.

In the Nez Perce, or traditionally, Nimu Puu ’s origin story, Coyote formed the Nez Perce people after a battle with a monster. Set in a time before mankind came to be, Coyote saves the people, or rather, the animals that had been devoured by the Monster. Coyote enters Monster through its mouth, where he searches for the heart. Along the way he encounters some people, whom he then tells to collect some wood. Arriving at the heart, he starts a fire, burning the monster from the inside. As the fire burned near the heart, Coyote began cutting the heart out. At the same time, he tells the people to now collect the Monster’s bones and take them to the monster’s orifices. When Coyote then finally manages to cut out the heart, the people kick the bones out of the Monster’s body and escape to the outside. Coyote then smears the Monster’s blood on his hands, sprinkling it on the bones to bring back all who had died inside of the Monster. Using the rest of the monster, Coyote distributes parts of the body throughout the country, forming what would become different Native American groups. An upset fox then asks why Coyote left nothing for the locals. The clever Coyote then uses water to wash off the remaining blood. Sprinkling the bloody water onto the local regions, Coyote formed the Nez Perce people (Walker and Matthews 1998: 9-11 ).

Aside from being creator of the Earth, the Coyote was also a figure that taught the morals accepted not accepted in society. Most of the time, Coyote is seen in various situations, in which he has done something wrong. As a result, Coyote suffers the consequences. The Wintu tribe of the California culture area told the humorous tale of Coyote whose cockiness led to trouble in Coyote and the Bullfish. In the tale, the Coyote is a smug bully who teases the Bullfish for being small. Coyote eggs the Bullfish on to swallow his toe, but the Bullfish ignores him. The taunting continues, until Bullfish finally has had enough and swallows Coyote whole. The animal folk begin missing Coyote, and soon start searching for him. A doctor receives a vision that Coyote is was under the water, alive, and in the Bullfish’s belly. In an attempt to hide himself, the Bullfish turns the water muddy. However the attempt was in vain as a water bird named Mud-Spear spots the Bullfish’s tail and spears the fish. Cutting the Bullfish open, out comes Coyote who assures everyone that he had only been sleeping (Margolin and Montijo 1995: 101-101). As this story had dealt with what was not acceptable social behavior, other subjects also included ethics.

Over in the Great Basin, the Coyote was no different than the ones depicted in other tribes. The Paiute, known for their key resource of pine nuts, told the story of how Coyote stole the pine nuts. In The Theft of Pine Nuts, Coyote stumbles upon a camp where he sees a little boy holding some pine nuts. Coyote asks for some, but is given a watered down pine nut drink. No matter what the Coyote tried, the drink would not stay put-it would always come right back out. Defeated, Coyote returns home to his brother Wolf. Coyote then tells everybody about the pine nuts he had seen over at the camp. Feeling egotistical, he tells the people to call him Tall Fellow, namely, a Tall Fellow who found everything. But the people ignored him and continued to call him Coyote. Upon arriving at the camp, the band of animals soon learned that the people had hidden the pine nuts. The greedy coyote, wanting to steal the pine nuts for himself, asks Mouse to help look for the nuts. It was no use, the pine nuts were nowhere to be found. It was not until Woodpecker came along that the nuts were found. However as a result, the people chased the animals. The animals ran, but all were killed except for Coyote who had run the fastest. Miraculously, once the people had left, all who had been killed rose from the dead. On the way home, Coyote and his friends encounter another obstacle-an ice wall blocking their path. Coyote tried to break the ice, but nothing he did would work. Finally with the help of Crow, the animals were able to get past the ice and return home. Eating the pine nuts, Coyote and Wolf decide to take some pine nuts and raise them. Putting the pine nuts in their mouth and spitting it over the mountains, the pine nuts were left to grow. Coyote however had been crafty. He had eaten most of his pine nuts before spitting them out. The end result was that Wolf grew pine nuts and all that Coyote grew was juniper trees (Ramsey 1977: 247-248).

There are many tales involving Coyote in various situations, but all have common factors. For example, in almost every story, Coyote interacts with another animal. Whether it is the animal assisting Coyote or meeting him along the way, there is always some sort of interaction between the animals. Some of the times Coyote works with these animals to achieve a common goal. Other times the animal helps the Coyote on his latest venture. Also in the creation myths, Coyote either along with others or with some help, uses a simple material to make mankind or the world. Personality wise, Coyote is usually depicted as cunning, boastful, and even as the “master of… creative deception.” (Hyde 1999: 17) But the coyote’s cunningness does not allow him to escape trouble completely. In many of the tales Coyote’s own hubris becomes the source of his problems. This can be seen in Coyote and Bullfish, where an overconfident Coyote relentlessly mocks Bullfish, and even denies ever being in trouble once saved. Prideful Coyote can also be found when Coyote feels that he should be called Tall Fellow who finds everything, simply because he had happened upon pine nuts at a human camp. All of these tales serve as an explanation-whether of the origins of the world or the consequences of certain actions, these tales are helpful in teaching. And so, Coyote becomes an important part of the natives’ culture.

Within every culture, there is always an important figure in their beliefs. This figure becomes central in daily life. The coyote was more than just an animal to the natives. Instead, the natives regarded coyotes as somewhat of a hero. After all, the coyote is the creator and helper. As seen in the Yokut’s Beginning of the World, the coyote provided them with a supply of food-crops that if tended, would replenish every year. In other tales, the coyote also taught the people how to catch salmon (Hyde 1999: 18). But that was not all that the coyote taught. The numerous adventures of the coyote served to teach people the outcomes of immorality. It showed people that nothing is without consequence. For example, it is learned that arrogance is a bad thing, as it led to Coyote being swallowed by the fish. The same goes for stealing the pine nuts. By cheating and eating the seeds, Coyote only cheated himself. All the while, the telling of these stories helps keep their tradition alive. Young children are told these stories, which not only teaches them right from wrong, but also teaches them about their own culture. For example, when hearing how the world was formed, the children learn about why they exist. That origin tale is unique to their culture. As a result, the way they view the world is shaped by these tales.

All of these tales are far from silly. While on the surface the tales can be humorous, underneath there is a deeper meaning. In every tale was a lesson to be learned-whether it was of the origin of the world or just that of a commentary on morality-the coyote was apparent in all of them. The coyote trickster was more than just a character–it was a part of native life, and certainly a figure kept close to their hearts. It did not matter which tribe the story originated from, or what the story was. In the end, they all had one purpose: explaining the world around them.

References

Erdoes, Richard and Alfonso Ortiz

1998 American Indian Trickster Tales. New York: Penguin Books

Hyde, Lewis

1999 Trickster Makes This World. New York: North Point Press

Margolin, Malcolm and Yolanda Montijo

1995. Native Ways: California Indian Stories and Memories. California: Heyday Books

Matthews, Daniel N. and Deward E. Walker

1998 Nez Perce Coyote Tales: The Myth Cycle. Wyoming: University of Oklahoma Press

Ramsey, Jarold

1977. Coyote Was Going There: Indian Literature of the Oregon Country. Washington: University of Washington Press

Whites in power developed legal systems designed to both augment and justify their domination of other people. Both African Americans and Chinese Americans needed whites to testify for them as nonwhites weren’t allowed to testify. In Hiroshi Montomura’s book, Americans in Waiting: the Lost Story of Immigration and Citizenship in the United States, he states that, “[the Geary Act of 1892 required] one credible witness [to prove that the Chinese person had been in the country before 1892 or they would be deported]” (Montomura 34). By only allowing a white person to be a witness, it made it very hard for the Chinese Americans to be able to stay within the United States. The Chinese Americans came into the United States to help settle the land, build railroads, and do many other jobs that the white Americans of the time did not want to do. They willingly took on this work and then laws were put in place to take away their freedoms as residents within the United States. A place that was supposed to be this positive dream of capitalism and being able to make their own way, different from their communist China, had instead disillusioned them and crushed their dreams.

African Americans also had legal systems put in place against them. In Tera Hunter’s book, To ‘joy My Freedom: Southern Black Women’s Lives and Labors after the Civil War, she states that, “[Black men were] falsely accused of raping white women [while white men raped black women without penalty]” (Hunter 34). Since African Americans also had this need to produce a credible white witness to testify for them in court these false accusations were often tried and found to be true which led a lot of blacks to be castrated or lynched.

Additionally, whites placed limits and restrictions on employment and thereby wealth to keep the other races down financially and politically. Tera Hunter states that, the “lowest paid positions” and “unskilled and service labor” positions were often taken by the blacks (Hunter 25). The blacks were usually not allowed to gain employment in better paying jobs especially once the vagrancy laws came into play and prevented them from being able to take control over their working environment. Blacks could no longer quit a job when they were feeling unjustly treated, as that was now a prosecutable offense. The need to keep an employer happy even in times of unfair treatment forced them to stay at their current job with no hope for advancement. Once reference letters and recommendations from previous employers became needed to get another job, it made it that much harder because if you, as an African American, had left your previous employment on unfriendly terms you could not get another job which prevented you from improving your working condition.

Furthermore, whites gave unequal treatment based on race that ranged from restrictions on women to limits on expansion and eventually gave the whites total control over the land. The Native Americans were pushed onto reservations. In Gregory Nobles book, American Frontiers Cultural Encounters and Continental Conquest, he states that, “the only alternative to extermination was the reservation” (Nobles 212). This gave the Native Americans no choices. It was either die or be forced onto a reservation. The reservation lifestyle restricted their ability to hunt which is exactly what the whites wanted. The whites wanted the Native Americans to become dependent on them and they did this through annuities and loans. They wanted to underhandedly force the Native Americans into becoming farmers, which was against their hunter and gatherer lifestyle, and they did this by many means. The whites not only forced the Native Americans onto reservations but they also killed off the buffalo, their main source of sustenance, by hunting it for sport. The Native Americans used all of the buffalo for food, weapons, and many other things. The whites were very wasteful and just took the animals’ skin or its head and left the carcass to rot. The Native American’s lost their main supply of food and had to depend on the annuities from the whites. They were even cheated of those annuities as they never received the full annuities promised to them. Nobles also mentions that “[during 1837 to 1840] European diseases such as smallpox and cholera [diminished tribe numbers by 30 to 50%]” (Nobles 225). The whites were taking away their food, their land, their freedoms, and now they were giving them something, but something that they didn’t want, death and deadly diseases.

Chinese Americans faced similar problems with regards to expansion when the whites disallowed their women to come to America and forced the Chinese out of the cities in California. In Hiroshi Montomura’s book, Americans in Waiting: the Lost Story of Immigration and Citizenship in the United States, he states that the 1875 Page Act barred criminals and prostitutes, the Chinese women being considered to be prostitutes (Montomura 25). By whites imposing these limits on Chinese women coming to America they were limiting Chinese expansion as families cannot grow if they are not together.

Whites limited the power of the Chinese Americans, the Native Americans, and the African Americans through these three tactics in order to maintain control. They tried to keep down these races through exploitation of these groups of individuals. All three groups tried to rise up against the whites but with the laws put in place by the whites, they were destined to fail. The whites had designed the system, so that to nonwhites the system was, to be the enemy.

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Works Cited

Hunter, Tera W. “Chapter 2: Reconstruction and the Meanings of Freedom.” To ‘joy My Freedom: Southern Black Women’s Lives and Labors after the Civil War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1997. 21-43. Print.

Motomura, Hiroshi. “Chapter 1: Contract and Classical Immigration Law.” Americans in Waiting: the Lost Story of Immigration and Citizenship in the United States. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2006. 15-37. Print.

Nobles, Gregory H. “Indians and the Enclosing Frontier, 1860-90.” American Frontiers Cultural Encounters and Continental Conquest. New York, NY: Hill and Wang [u.a., 1997. 209-242. Print.

Pilgrims and Native Americans were not on good terms during colonial times. Though the Natives helped the European settlers with agricultural this did not satisified their ever growing need.  A few days before  the pilgrims would have their feast, a company of pilgrims led by a man named Myles Standish went to to decapitate the head of a local chief. He beheaded Wituwamat then brought the head to Pylmouth and placed it upon a pike. The natives then began to call the settlers ‘Wotowquenange’ which translates to cutthroats and stabbers.

By the 1630’s a group of 700 Puritans had arrived on 11 ships settled in Boston and the hostility between the locals and settlers grew.  In 1637  Seven hundred Pequot women,children and elderly were trapped near the mouth of the Mystic River by whites and this incident marks the first Thanksgiving.  In years to come more European settlers came to America, Native Americans began dieing from dieseases reducing the Massachusetts population fromover 24,000 to 750. 

1671, Englishmen were at war with the Native American chief of the Wampanoags,Metacomet. He slowly watched the as their was and lifestyle of his people be engulfed by the Europeans. Now by 1671 Metacomet had been order to come to Pylmouth to signed a treaty in which he would have to have approval from the whites to sell his land,their also request he return all firearms in his community.  In retaliated in 1675,Metacomet  raids attacked several isolated frontier towns. About half a century since their arrival the Englishmen finally defeated the great indian nation. 

1676 Metacomet was murdered his body was quarted and left for the wolves. His hands were sent to Boston and his head to Plymouth. His son was excuted die to but was sent to the Caribbeans and sold into slavery;he was only nine years old.  As the destruction of the natives continued many days have been proclaimed as Thanksgiving but in 1704 by Governer Josepg Dudley declared a general Thanksgiving. 

Although Columbus Day officially became a federal holiday in 1937, Columbus Day had been celebrated for hundreds of years before Franklin Delano Roosevelt made it an official holiday.  Columbus Day was first celebrated in New York in 1792, to commemorate the 300-year anniversary of Columbus’ “discovery of America,”  on October 12, 1492. The  day continued to be celebrated sporadically until the mid-to-late 1800s, when the waves of immigrants coming to the United States–many from Italy–increased interest in the holiday.  Indeed, one of the main reasons for Columbus Day’s popularity was because it honored the deeds of an Italian, and therefore appealed to the myriad immigrant populations coming to the United States.  During a period in U.S. history in which there was also considerable enmity towards Catholics, the recognition of Columbus Day went a long way towards making the new European immigrants–many of whom were Catholic–feel that their contributions to the United States were being acknowledged.

Nowadays, even the most casual observe of history realizes that Columbus did not “discover” America.  First of all, of courese, there were thousands of indigenous peoples already living in the Americas.  Secondly, it seems certain that Vikings and other seafaring civilizations traveled to the Americas long before Columbus arrived–and even when he did arrive, he landed in the Bahamas, and never set foot in what is now the United States.  (That is why Columbus Day is celebrated in much of central and South America as well).

Moreover, there is no doubt that while Columbus’ discovery, on behalf of Queen Isabel of Spain, opened up the development of the Americas to the various European empires, it also ushered in the start of centuries of mistreatment, abuse, and devastation to the multitudes of Native Americans already living here.  No one would suggest that this dark chapter in America’s history should be held up for adulation; this is why many states and localities now celebrate a version of Native American Day or Indigenous Peoples’ day in place of Columbus Day, and many others just ignore the day altogether.

But this may very well be a mistake.  The primary purpose behind making Columbus Day a federal holiday was to recognize the contributions of someone whom  the majority of immigrants coming to the United States at that time could relate to and feel kinship towards. The holiday “Columbus Day” was meant to appeal to–and perhaps appease–the growing numbers of immigrants from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds, and was also a day that was already celebrated and recognized by U.S. citizens for hundreds of years.  Thus, the creation of the federal holiday helped “link” the newer immigrant populations with the older, more established ethnic groups already here.

To simply ignore Columbus Day does not change history, or even begin to redress the wrongs done to Native Americans by the European colonists.  However, celebrating the date that Columbus “discovered” America does not mean that we, as a nation, are glossing over the treatment of Native Americans at the hands of the Europeans.  Certainly no one suggests that we should do away with Thanksgiving, even though the English colonists were equally brutal towards Native Americans.  Instead, Thanksgiving is used–in part, at least–as a way to educate people about the importance of the Native Americans to the United States.

The celebration of Columbus Day has generated strong dialog on the issue, which is an excellent reason to justify its continuance as a holiday.  A celebration of Columbs Day could simultaneously be a celebration of the Americas’ indigenous peoples–a joining of two groups of people who helped shape American history.  Simply canceling the holiday does nothing to foster the discussions and awareness that have resulted due to the observance of Columbus Day as a holiday.

However, eliminating Columbus Day as a federal holiday would remove the only holiday that recognizes the contributions of immigrants to our country’s history–and that would be a mistake.  For better or worse, the United States is the country it is today because of the waves of immigrants–European and others–that traveled to our shores and populated the country.  Columbus Day was created, at least in part, to honor their role in history, and that fact needs to be remembered by those who wish to simply eliminate the holiday.  Perhaps the name should be changed, to make it a more generic holiday–Immigrants’ Day, for instance–in order to make the holiday less offensive. But the holiday itself should continue to be recognized, just as the contributions of immgrants–past and present–should continue to be recognized, on Columbus Day and every day.