• What would become of the countries previously occupied by the Nazis?
• What will become of Germany once it’s defeated?
• How to most efficiently deal with the war in Japan.

Roosevelt, the 32nd President of the Unites States, was sick when he attended the Conference. He did have, however, clear aims of what he wanted to achieve. As the League of Nations clearly failed in the 1930’s, he wanted to set up a new organization which would assurance world peace. Secondly, he wanted to reestablish the world economy by means of the World Bank and the IMP (International Monetary Fund). Finally, he aimed for the political systems active in America, i.e. free trade, anti-imperialism and democracy, to be spread.
Conversely, Stalin’s aims were heading in to opposite direction. He wanted the USSR to govern the whole of Eastern Europe and its boarders to be restored to their 1914 position. Furthermore, he wanted to rebuild the Soviet economy and keep Germany weak so it would never again have the power to invade the Soviet Union. Finally, he wanted friendly relations with the USA.
From the aims of the two men, it is easy to see that Roosevelt’s wish for anti-imperialism wouldn’t quite work out with Stalin’s will for a Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe. Nevertheless, this didn’t prevent them from agreeing on other points.
Churchill distrusted Stalin more than Roosevelt did. Roosevelt believed that Stalin could be won over through understanding and by insuring him that Soviet Security is being dealt with efficiently.
The Conference was generally seen as a success, since there was more agreement than disagreement.

The main points of the conference were as follows:

1. Austria and Germany would be temporarily zoned to prevent a land-grab free-for-all. Each zone would be placed under military control of one of the victorious powers and there would be demilitarisation and denazification. However, some issues were less clear cut; for example the reparations. Stalin wanted Germany to pay $20 billion in reparations, with half of the sum going to the USSR. It was agreed that a reparations commission would be set up in Moscow, to deal with this issue. Stalin also wanted to move Poland’s western frontier to the Oder-Neisse line; this move was bitterly opposed by Churchill.

2. Roosevelt wanted help in defeating Japan. The Americans estimated that the Pacific war could drag onto 1947, with up to half a million US casualties. Therefore he was prepared to make concessions in return for Stalin’s help. Stalin agreed to this. He promised to send in his troops once Germany was defeated, estimating that they would be ready by August 1945.

3. A United Nations Organisation would be set up. This was not objected by Stalin, however he demanded the right to veto on the Security Council. Churchill and Roosevelt were prepared to pay this price and accepted his demand as they believed that co-operation would continue after the war.

4. Elections were to be held in Eastern Europe. Settlements here (especially Poland) were Stalin’s main priority and it was generally accepted that Stalin should have influence here; however it wasn’t clear at this point what exactly this meant. There was a Polish government in exile, the London Poles and also an alternative Communist Government; the Lublin Committee. Stalin promised that he would broaden the Lublin Committee to include some of the London Poles.

To what extent decisions were implemented

1. Stalin joined the UN (United Nations) and agreed for its headquarters to be situated in New York. This was a victory for Roosevelt’s diplomacy even though the right to veto was given to the 5 permanent members of the Security Council.
2. Stalin simply ignored the agreements about Eastern Europe at the conference. It turned out that his definition for ‘elections’ was different to that of the west. He had no intention of allowing ‘western-style’ free elections as he would not be sure of the outcome. If anti-Communist Governments would come to power in countries like Rumania, Poland, Hungary and Bulgaria, he would not get his sphere of influence in Eastern Europe. His sphere could only be guaranteed if fixed elections would take place to reserve leadership for a pro-Communist government, whose leaders would be trained in Moscow. This was an indication that Stalin would let nothing get in the way of him getting his buffer zone in Eastern Europe; to protect the USSR against invasions from the west. This could also give hints that he might intend to expand into Western Europe.
3. Stalin fulfilled his commitments over the occupation of Germany. He allowed the west to have half of Berlin, even though the USSR captured after weeks for hand-to-hand street fighting. He could have insisted to keeping the whole of Berlin to himself, but chose not to. This might be an indication that he intended to keep Germany united, with Berlin staying the capital city.
4. Stalin also agreed that France could participate in the occupation of Germany. He knew that the French would feel evenly insecure about a reviving Germany. This was because they were invaded by Germany multiple times; in 1870; in 1914, before the First World War; and in 1940 one year into the Second World War. However the French were in the ‘western camp’ and this was unlikely to change. The issue of reparations was more problematic. Stalin insisted on these. He removed industrial plant from his zone of Germany, suggesting that he would not help Germany recover.
5. Finally, the USSR declared war on Japan, like agreed. This was either because the USA had used the atomic bomb first and Stalin would want to be a participant in defeating Japan; alternatively, Stalin might just be keeping his promise. Stalin used this chance to take territory from the Japanese. Nevertheless, he handed back China to Chinag Kaishek’s Nationalist government, after having cleared out the Japanese forces who occupied it.

What were the views of the great powers of the immediate outcome of the Conference?

Roosevelt had some concern about Poland, but understood how important it was to Stalin. This indicated that he will adopt a ‘do-nothing’ policy and he believed that post war understanding could be reached through the United Nations Organisation. In his book, Rise to Globalism, Ambrose wrote “Roosevelt was prepared to overlook much, or. . . adopt a realistic attitude towards developments in Poland”
However, there was some concern in the US administration about Roosevelt’s ‘do-nothing’ policy. Avrell Harriman believed that the policy could be interpreted as weakness, not the will to co-operate.
For others, the size of the Red Army was the main concern. There was a power vacuum in Germany and the Soviet Union occupied much of Eastern Europe. This seemed to threaten the whole of Europe. There was fear in Britain that once America withdraws its troops from Europe, there would be nothing stopping the Soviet Union from expanding into the west.
With Stalin, it is difficult to tell what he thought of the conference, since this depends on his original aims. If he aimed to expand the Soviet Empire, the he wouldn’t have been too happy. Nonetheless, he would have been quite satisfied with the outcomes if he aimed to improve Soviet security.

Many social reforms took place in the aftermath of World War Two. Canadian soldiers returned home to a country that was ready to break free from the influence of war. Women fought for increased status, Canada’s population exploded, foreign and domestic relations changed, and the government began to play a bigger role. This was a time of change in Canada, and much of it helped to shape Canada into what it is today.

 Following the Second World War, a women’s movement emerged. Their aim was to improve women’s social standing compared to men. They realized that this could not be done through simple legal changes, but had to be done through social change. Certain groups began to offer abortion services, feminist magazines, and shelters for women. Abortion clinics gave women power to control their fertility. As women started entering the workforce, the Women’s Movement fought for more equal pay for women.

A dramatic increase in the amount of births also followed the end of World War Two. Over 400,000 babies were born between 1947 and 1966 in Canada. Some of the Canadian soldiers that were stationed overseas married while on duty and brought back their wives with them to Canada. Those women were called ‘War Brides’. This caused an increase in population and fuelled the Baby Boom. Due to the large number of births, the word ‘Teenager’ was created in the 1950’s because of the large number of people who fell into this age group. Teenagers had more spending money and were able to socialize with other teenagers, creating independence and freedom.

The post war economy experienced growth and expansion. Many industries worldwide ramped up production to meet higher consumer demand. To accommodate the growing population, houses were built outside cities, which were known as the ‘Suburbs’. The suburbs held a traditional set of values that included the raising of 3-4 children and the male head of the family being the breadwinner.

The Hippie Movement originated in the United States. It started out as a youth a youth movement that held a counter cultural ideal. They protested against the Vietnam War and the possession of nuclear weapons; many of the protesters were generalized as hippies. The peace symbol has its origins in the hippie community. It was originally created in the United Kingdom as a symbol for anti nuclear protests. Hippies were part of non violent protests against the Vietnam War and educated college students on the background of Vietnam and the pretext of the war.

Many of the restrictions to immigration implemented during wartime still remained after the end of the war, such as the Chinese Head Tax. However, due to the growing economy of Canada, immigration restrictions based on race, religion or ethnic were eliminated. Racial or religious discrimination in employment and education were made illegal. The legislations against discrimination and the opening of Canada toward immigrants laid the groundwork for the multicultural country we have today.

The French-Canadian community grew further apart from the rest of Canada after the war. This was intensified when the Prime Minister of France called for the freedom of Quebec while on a visit to Canada. Quebec also sought to be viewed as an independent state, and began to have talks with other countries. This movement caused the creation of a radical group called the ‘Front de liberation du Quebec.

The FLQ was responsible for the kidnapping of James Cross, a British trade commissioner, ad Pierre Laporte, who was the Minister of Labour and Vice-Premier of Quebec. In wake of this accident, the War Measures Act was activated. Police were deployed in Quebec and arrested 497 people. Pierre Laporte was killed by the kidnappers but James Cross was freed after negotiations with the kidnappers.

Canada’s relations with the United States grew worse after the war. The ever increasing influence of American culture was alarming people in Canada. This led to the creation of the Massey Commission. The Massey Commission found problems that prevented composers and artists from reaching their potential. This included high costs, lack of an established music library, and lack of a graduate program for musical research. Their solution was to support Canadian citizens engaged in the arts.

To further protect Canadian culture, the Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission was created. It is responsible for regulating all broadcasts and telecommunications in Canada. The CRTC aims to protect Canadian broadcasters from foreign competitors by giving priority to Canadian channels. The CBC is a crown corporation that broadcasts Canadian programs. Its programs were distinctly Canadian and eased the influence of American media. The National Film Board of Canada is responsible for creating public films. This gave Canadians an alternative to American made movies.  

The increased role of government in Canada helped to give First Nations people the right to vote. Previously, First Nations people could only vote if they gave up their First Nations status. Residential schools, which served as a tool to take Native children and convert to Christianity and to ‘civilize’ them, were closed. The White Paper contained propositions that would repeal the Indian Act, and turn down the land claims made by First Nations. It would also turn First Nations into a minority ethnic group instead of a separate group. Chinese Canadians gained the right to vote the same year that the Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed. Japanese Canadians gained the right to vote after the deportation of Japanese Canadians was repealed.

The Canadian government began to put more emphasis on social programs. Unemployment insurance helps people who are unemployed. These benefits are given on the condition that they are seeking work. The Old Age Pension gives benefits to Canadians over 65 years old. In 2008 the monthly benefit is $502.31 a month. Canada’s Medicare covers almost 70% of all Canadian health costs. This includes covering 90% of hospital costs. Veterans also received benefits for participating in the war. They were able to use the money they received from the government to support their family. Many soldiers bought houses in the suburbs, a rapidly growing community.

The Canadian Bill of Rights passed in 1960 gave Canadians certain rights. These include the freedom of speech, freedom of religion, the right to counsel, the right to security, and the right to enjoyment of property. Critics of the bill say that it did not fix any conflicting laws and left courts with a harder time making decisions.

At the end of an all out World War Two, Canada was ready for the string of social reform that took place. Canada came out of those reforms a better country overall. Canada has created measures to defend itself from American influence, eliminated racism and discrimination in law, given women more equal standing, and increased the effectiveness of its social programs.

 Australia’s history has been poisoned with the how the country has treated the indigenous people of the nation. So much so that eventually they began to take a stand and fight for their rights. One of these uprisings was the Freedom Ride in 1965. The Freedom rides began on the 12th of Feburary 1965. It started with 30 university students, being led by Charles Perkins, a man who later become one of Australias most influential aboriginal activists.

All these social consciousness awoke Charles Perkins to speak up for his aboriginal people. Perkins was sometimes refered to as contraversial leader in the Aboriginal Community. He was viewed as a revoulutionary spokesman and bureaucrat. He was known for his willingness and grit, as he would fight for what he believed in. However this would sometimes bring him into dispute with the community leaders and with the government. His involvement with the Freedom rides in the 1960’s played a key role in bringing awareness to mistreatment of aboriginal people in Australia.

Charles Perkins was born in 1936, and he spent the most part of his childhood in a police patrolled compound in Alice Springs. He was introduced to academics at the age of 10. Perkins believed that he had an unhappy childhood, and that he suffered racial isolation and he was treated like a second class citizen. Perkins’ ability for the sport of soccer saw him travel to England to  play for amateur teams. He was eventually offered a position in the Manchester United football club, however he humbly declined the offer. Soon after he retired from proffesional soccer in 1965. He went to to study in the University of Sydney in which he graduated with a bachelor of Arts. This made him the first indigenous person to graduate from university education in Australia.

Soon after Perkins became involved in the Freedom Rides movement. 30 Sydney University students banded together and formed the ‘Students For Aboriginal Rights’ (SAFA) and they began a trip around NSW to enlighten people of the situation aboriginal people are in. Perkins was inspired by the events that took place in America with similar circumstances. In an effort to raise awareness across country NSW, he led the Freedom Rides bus tour that travel to these places to protest the treatment aboriginal people faced. They wanted to target the main issues such as lack of  education, poor living standards, inadequate health services and racial discrimination. They protested the treatment of the indigenous people in public places such as parks, pools and RSL clubs. These were placed aboriginals were banned from. These protests were often met with violent reactions from the angered locals.

On place they targeted was Walgett, where the freedom riders protested at the Walgett RSL club. The aboriginal people who also fought in the war were not respected by the members of the club as they should have been. The protests were covered by the media and it helped rally more support.

They then began to spread to Moree, where the issue of segregation in swimming pools would be tackled. There form of attack was presented in three areas: protesting in front of the council chambers, taking aboriginal children to the pool and holding a meeting that night. The protest was considered a victory for the Freedom Riders. The Freedom ride had since gained national and international press coverage. It was largely publicised. This was the beggining of when Australia would really consider its treatment of aboriginal people. This would eventually lead to changes in National Referendum of 1967.

Perkins’ Freedom ride through country NSW, developed an opening for the  indigenous people to fight for their rights. Perkins began work in Canberra after this event and it was because of this that there are now many changes for indigenous people. However, his actions caused him to be sacked by the government. This experience urged him to continue speaking about the issues that aboriginals face.

The Freedom Rides were about raising awareness,  and thanks to successful leadership it was a triumphant movement. It really helped aboriginal people gain control of how they should be living, not how the white man wants him to live. The 1960’s was not a pleasant time for aboriginal people. They were treated as if they were some second class being. Forced to move out the land that was orginally theirs, they were forced to live in shabby pockets of lands, otherwise refered to as missions or reserves. The condition were horrendous. They had no bare essentials such as elctricity or plumbing. Also the treatment they faced in everyday life was vile. Constant  mistreatment such as verbal abuse was a normal thing they faced. It even developed into physical attacks, simply for being aboriginal.

Charles Perkins has been an influential person for aboriginal people. He has been a strong leader, and enthusiatic activist and a role model for other aboriginal people to stand up. He is seen as a revolutionary person for his grit and will power to fight for his rights and to fight for what is right. For his actions he was engraved his name in australias history. From being a soccer player to leading the Freedom Rides, he has shaped how Australia treats aboriginal people. He has shaped Australias history. He will always be a prominent figure in Australia’s history.

When the war finish Europe didn’t have as many countries as it did before the war started . Germany earned more territory , Austria turned little and there were no more Great Britain , North Sea . Germany and France were the biggest countries. After WW 1 it still led the world in many things , such as politics , technology and science . But its economy and industry began to descend , and America got nearer to Europe . And many powers like Britain lost its ability to control the world by itself gradually . That is , Europe must unit as one to control the international politics .

The English Channel was taken by the United Kingdom. Almost all the countries were taken away. Europe wasn’t the same after the war ended.

As the name suggests, Brutalism was a very stern, aggressive style that had a bloody-minded commitment to the principles of Modernism. Visually, it constituted a “fossilisation” of Modernism. The light, ethereal forms of Modernism were replaced with heavy, solid masses interlocking in complex, abstract patterns. The finish was deliberately harsh and rugged.

Brutalism was practiced by young architects who had studied Modernism. The key influence was Le Corbusier. In his later years, Le Corbusier began to compulsively explore the expressive and structural possibilities of concrete. He designed the Unité d’Habitation (1947-53) in the south of France. This was intended as low cost housing for the working classes. It is a megalithic structure in exposed concrete. The whole thing is lifted off the ground on stilts in order to elevate it above the decay and disorder of the city and it has a rigid geometric form.

Unité d’Habitation (1947-53)

This had a strong influence on post-war architecture in Britain. Le Corbusier described his choice of material as béton brut or “raw concrete”. The British architectural historian Reyner Banham adapted the term béton brut into “Brutalism” to define the emerging style. A notorious example of Brutalism is Park Hill in Sheffield, a mass-housing scheme. This was designed by the architects of Sheffield City Council. Its main inspiration was Le Corbusier’s Unité d’Habitation. Like the Unité, each dwelling is manufactured from standardized parts and the whole is finished in raw concrete, but instead of a single mega structure, it consists of a series of huge hexagonal complexes.

Park Hill in Sheffield

Most architects and planners were – and are – middle class and well-educated, but in this case they were designing mass housing for the working classes. This can cause problems because middle class planners do not necessarily understand the tastes and needs of working class residents. Many of these designs were pervaded by patronizing assumptions about the working class.

For example, the rough concrete finish was meant to symbolize the strength and solidarity of the working classes. Likewise, the planners associated the working classes with terraced housing. They therefore designed elevated walkways, or “streets in the sky” as they were called, which were supposed to simulate working class terraces. The inward-turned, introverted blocks were designed to generate a communal spirit and bind communities together. This was dangerously close to social engineering.

Trellick Tower in London (1972) was a mass housing project built by the Greater London Council. It was designed by Erno Goldfinger, a Hungarian Modernist who was heavily influenced by Le Corbusier. Trellick Tower is designed as a giant vertical slab with a dramatic freestanding access tower linked by walkways. The building soon developed a bad reputation for crime and vandalism. It helped to make the public hostile to Modernism and suspicious of the architectural profession.

Trellick Tower, London (1972)

Brutalist buildings were actually built with a socialist ethos. The Labor government that came to power after the war tried to create a more egalitarian society. They built new schools and hospitals, as well as new universities and polytechnics. The Brutalist style was used for many of these.  We might ask how Brutalism can be seen as democratic when it is so harsh and unforgiving? Like Modernism, it used one style for all purposes. There is no hierarchical distinction between a house, a factory or an art gallery. This does represent a certain democratic ideal. Of course, most people find this unifying image repellent, but even so Brutalism tried to act as a democratic leveller and to undermine elitism.

No. 50 Queen Anne’s Gate is an office block in Westminster designed by Fitzroy Robinson & Partners with Basil Spence (1976). This was the headquarters of the Home Office between 1978 and 2004. It is an imposing concrete totem – top-heavy with a base composed of cellular units. This was a very common feature in Brutalist buildings. Overall, it is very grim and severe. It looks like an impenetrable fortress, which is an unfortunate association. Of course, it might have been deliberate, an attempt to symbolise the government’s authority.

No. 50 Queen Anne’s Gate

Newcastle City Library (demolished) was another building designed by Basil Spence. The library shows the direct influence of Le Corbusier’s Dominican monastery of La Tourette near Lyon (1953-7). This was one of Le Corbusier’s last major works. Both have vertical concrete mullions over the windows. Both have rough execution, using the texture of concrete and both are dominated by overhanging forms. The concrete has a wood-grained surface, indicating that it was cast from wooden moulds. This is an example of Modernist truth-to-materials – revealing how it was made and constructed. So Brutalism followed Modernist principles.

Monastery of La Tourette

A local example is Gateshead Car Park (1962), which is famous because it features in Get Carter, a British gangster movie that was filmed in the North East. This was designed by Owen Luder, a former president of the RIBA. It has seven tiers of concrete decks. Like Le Corbusier’s Unité d’habitation, the whole structure is raised on columns, and like Trellick Tower it has an almost freestanding access tower. The tower has a continuous rhythm that is punctuated by a solid block of concrete. Again, it is like an abstract sculpture.

Gateshead Car Park (1962)

Not all Brutalist buildings were cheaply built. The National Theatre (1976) in London is a building of quality that used the democratic ideal of Brutalism to good effect. This was designed by Denys Lasdun. Although the raw concrete is harsh and severe, there is a complex interlocking of forms and sophisticated spatial treatment. Prince Charles said the National Theater looked like a nuclear power station, but it really demonstrates the best of Brutalism. The finish is stark and austere, so there is nothing to detract from the basic composition. It is extremely well-composed, with long cantilevered decks reminiscent of Frank Lloyd Wright.

National Theatre (1976)

More extensive was Denys Lasdun’s design for the University of East Anglia. This was a hall of residence with classrooms behind. The residential quarters have a pyramidal massing. The glazed surface is unusual in Brutalist architecture, but it gives a crystalline effect. At the rear, there is a block with a continuous, unbroken axis and a sculptural composition of volumes which is more typical.

University of East Anglia

In conclusion, post-war reconstruction was largely carried out in the Brutalist style, which was a derivative of Modernism. Brutalism was associated with a socialist ideology: it tried to eradicate hierarchical distinctions between building types and, to some extent, between people. Unfortunately, concrete weathers badly and the buildings quickly deteriorated. Brutalism became extremely unpopular with the public. The failure of Brutalist structures was a symptom of urban decay, and led to the unpopularity of both the architectural style and the ideology behind it.