By Mr Ghaz, March 19, 2011

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The History of Ancient Egypt: The Unity and Division

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After the reigns of Egypt’s predynastic rulers (the “Followers of Horus”), Upper and Lower Egypt were united for the first time in about 3100BCE when King Narmer of Upper Egypt defeated the chief of Lower Egypt and became the ruler of a single kingdom.

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The unification of Egypt marks the beginning of the Old Kingdom and the country’s written history: hieroglyphic script first appeared in this period. The new writing was employed to organize and run the state from the capital city of Memphis, which Narmer’s successors established at the apex of the Delta.

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Although the kings of the late predynastic and early dynastic periods were buried at Abydos, reflecting their southern origins, Third-dynasty rulers chose to be buried near their capital in the Memphis necropolis of Sakkara. Here, the step pyramid complex of Djoser-the first of Egypt’s many pyramids-encapsulates the power of the monarchy in stone. Increasingly ambitious building schemes were undertaken. King Snofru (ca.2625-2585BCE), the founder of the Fourth dynasty, which marked the beginning of the Old Kingdom, built three pyramids, including the first true pyramid, the so-called “Red Pyramid,” at Dashur.

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Subsequent rulers of the Old Kingdom went on to construct massive pyramid complexes at Giza. The first and largest of these-the Great Pyramid-was built by Snofru’s son Khufu (Cheops), about whom very little is known: his only likeness is a tiny ivory figurine and the extant accounts f his lives are largely fictional. Close to the Great Pyramid lies the pyramid of Khufu’s son Khafre (Chephren), where a stunning life-size figure was found representing Khafre held in the protective wings of the god Horus, with whom all kings identified. At this point, royal devotion to the sun god-so clearly demonstrated by the pyramid monuments-is also expressed in the adoption of the royal title sa-re, “Son of Re.”

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The smallest of the three Giza pyramids was built by Khafre’s son Menkaure (Mycerinus). Additions made to the complex during the Fifth and Sixth dynasties indicate that Menkaure’s cult flourished for hundreds of years after his death.

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A decline in royal power occurred during the Sixth dynasty. By the death of Pepy II (ca.2288-2194BCE), who, at the end of his extremely long reign, had come to be seen as an ageing, weakened old man rather than as an omnipotent god on Earth, royal power was severely undermined. Provincial officials began to create their own petty kingdoms and the country gradually fragmented until central authority broke down into the anarchy of the First Intermediate Period.

Thebes

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Following a century of division and civil war during the First Intermediate Period, Egypt was reunited under the southern warrior princes of Thebes (modern Luxor). Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II (ca. 2008-1957BCE) finally defeated his northern rivals, who had made Herakleopolis their capital. Under the Eleventh-dynasty kings, the previously provincial town of Thebes became the most important city in the land, and the status of the local god, Amun of Karnak, was significantly enhanced. Mentuhotep embarked upon ambitious building schemes, including the construction of an imposing terraced funerary temple below the cliffs at Deir el-Bahari on the Theban west bank, behind which he and the royal women were buried.

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Although subsequent pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom moved back north to the traditional capital of Memphis, they continued to add to Mentuhotep’s achievements and, under the capable rule of kings such as Senwosret III and Amenemhet III, the country thrived. Their successful military campaigns consolidated strengthened and centralized the bureaucracy to reduce the power of regional governors (nomarchs).

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In terms of art and literature, this prosperous time is regarded as the “classical” period of Egyptian culture. Large-scale projects, such as land reclamation and the erection of impressive pyramids, heralded the monarch’s return to absolute power. Royal portraiture depicted mighty rulers with stern, careworn faces reflecting the burdens of kingship.

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The first seven kings of the Twelfth dynasty (four named Amenemhet and three named Senwosret) enjoyed a continuous father-son succession until Amenemhet IV died without an heir. He was succeeded by the second of Egypt’s female pharaohs, his sister Sobekneferu. The instability caused by the long series of ephemeral monarchs under the following dynasties-around seventy kings in 150 years-led to continuous infiltration by Asiatic settlers. Absorbed into  Egyptian society and ultimately also the government, Asiatics eventually took the throne in approximately 1640BCE and were known to the native Egyptians as “Hyksos” (“Rulers of foreign Lands”). They reigned in the north while Thebes remained independent in the south, and thus Egypt entered its Second Intermediate Period. The Theban princes struggled against the Hyksos until Egypt was finally reunited under the Thebans by Ahmose (ca. 1539-1514BCE).

By Mr Ghaz, March 16, 2011

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Mystery of Ancient Egyptian Empire: The Napoleon of Ancient Egypt

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The start of the Eighteenth dynasty under King Ahmose (ca. 1539-1514BCE) marks the beginning of the New Kingdom-the golden age of ancient Egypt. After the expulsion of the Hyksos, a series of unrelenting warrior-pharaohs campaigned vigorously and created the greatest empire yet seen.

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Ahmose was succeeded by his son Amenhotep I, who followed in his father’s military footsteps to pacify Nubia. He also founded the village of Deir el-Medina for the works who built the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings, burial site of the New Kingdom rulers. The following three monarchs, all called Thutmose, were the sons of non-royal women, and strengthened their claims to the throne by marrying into the female royal line. On the sudden death of Thutmose II (ca. 1484-1479BCE), his heir was still too young to rule, and so the widowed queen, Hatshepsut, reigned as regent for around twenty prosperous years until Thutmose III, her stepson and nephew, was of age

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Egypt had become the most powerful country in the ancient world, its victories cemented by diplomatic alliances. At the center of this mighty empire stood Thebes. The city’s local god, Amun, was elevated to the status of a national deity, and as a result Amun’s clergy at Karnak grew in grew in wealth and power.

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Upon the accession of one of Amenhotep II’s younger sons as Thutmose IV, the power of the Karnak priests began to be curtailed. Thutmose IV’s son, Amenhotep III (ca. 1390-1353BCE), further distanced the crown from the temple of Amun, favouring instead the cult of the sun in the form of the Aten disk. This process was continued by Amenhotep IV, later Akhenaten (ca. 1353-1336BCE), whose extreme measures in promoting the Aten threatened the fabric of Egyptian culture. In closing down the traditional temples and relocating his capital, Akhenaten created political and economic instability that brought the country close to chaos.

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Akhenaten’s son and successor Tutankhamun restored order by returning to Thebes and reestablishing the worship of the traditional gods. The last king of the Eighteenth dynasty, Horemheb (ca. 1319-1292BCE), set about restoring Egypt’s neglected empire through reconquest-an imperialistic policy that was continued by the following dynasty, typified by Sety I and his famous son, the celebrated Ramesses II (ca. 1279-1213BCE).

Faith and Glory

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The temple of Luxor was built by Amenhotep III as a place to celebrate the annual Opet festival in which the king united with his divine ka (spirit) to strengthen his ability to rule. During the festival, the cult statue of the god Amun was carried to Luxor from the much largest temple of Amun at Karnak to the north along a processional way lined with sphinxes.

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Amenhotep’s graceful columns and interior buildings, partly decorated by his grandson Tutankhamun, were then later extended by Ramesses II in an attempt to emulate his illustrious predecessor. Alexander the Great also restored and made additions to some of the interior buildings almost a thousand year later.

The Face of Power

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Egyptian royal portraiture often displays the emblems of pharaonic power, such as the regalia of crook and flail, sceptre and mace, and the many forms of regal costume. Kings were usually depicted wearing one of a large range of crowns, most of which bore the uraeus (sacred serpent) over the brow. Upper and Lower Egypt were symbolized by the White Crown (Hedjet) and Red Crown (Deshret) respectively, while the Red and White combined (Pschent) represented the “Two Lands” of the united Egypt. The plumed Atef Crown was worn on certain ritual occasions and was associated with the god Osiris. The blue-and-yellow striped headcloth (Nemes) was popular with rulers throughout the pharaonic period. The Blue Crown (Khepresh), which was linked with the sun god, was frequently worn by Eighteenth-dynasty pharaohs.

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who was she -

Hatsheput  was the eldest daughter of Thutmose 1 and queen Ahmose , as her father and mother didn’t have any sons her father had a son from the harem this was hatchepsut half brother Thutmose 11 . Later on they then where married  to ensure the purity of the royal bloodline. hatchepsut and Thutmose 11 had a daughter neferure but had no sons they had a loving marriage.

Things changed after her husbands death-

Her husband(also half brother  Thutmose 11 suddenly passed away and a new king needed to be throned the thing was that hatshepsuit had no sons and that’s what she needed  too secure her place an keep her fathers bloodline  alive. There was only one option her husband Thutmose 11 had a son from the harem and hatshepsuit knowing that the boys mother was of to of a lower standard to guide or to preserve the royal line , i thin that she saw this as an opportunity , hatchepsut was made co regent to the new king and she happily accepted in the new Pharaohs early years she built statues and buildings in his honour glorifying him as the true pharaoh of Egypt and taught him how to be king but a wave of change was coming hatshepsuit had other ideas 

So how did she become king-

As co regent which is like a guide till they are old enough to handle the full responsibility of Egypt (it was very common)hatshepsut took power she proclaimed that she was king as Thutmose once again become successor not pharaoh in history their is no reason for this change in power people don’t understand why she took power.There are temple hieroglyphics  saying that hatchepsut heavenly father and earth father wanted her to rule that was her personal justification that the god amen and her father Thutmose the first had chosen her to rule .The only other reasonably cause for her taking power is a emergency threatening power in Egypt and it needed a older wiser leader but there aren’t any historical recording to back it up.N o one challenged her as it was not illegal foe a women to act on behalf of  a man to protect the dynastic line .

what kind of leader was she-

In her 22 year reign she was a formidable leader building the captivating and still visited as a tourist must see the Dier El bahari along with construction she was a heavily resourceful queen who constantly had her eye on expanding  Egypt she improved their resources and focused her development mainly on Karnac . In contrast to other pharaohs she hardly engaged in battle as she was a worthy opponent so many places would not attack as they thought she would turn the tables she was well feared for her cunning and intellect in a mans world she stood shoulder to shoulder.

Why would she be removed from history-

There are a couple of theories people have as to why Hatshepsut’s body life and monuments were destroyed these are the main two-

1-By erasing Hatshepsut only 

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Thutmose would be the only heir of Thutmose 11 and the traditions of father to son pharaoh lineage would be preserved in future when people looked back that would see the queen as a precedent it was to protect political correctness.

2- revenge -people think that as Thutmose was sidelined he removed all her monuments and trace of her in history as he didn’t want her to be remembered because he was bitter she stole the throne for 22 years.

My personal opinion-

I don’t share the common ideology i think that Thutmose’s  was the traditional leader and as he had been sidelined he probably didn’t want that remembered as having to wait 22 years and not contesting her reign but allowing himself to be sidelined .The typical Pharaoh was meant to be a good looking strong Verile man descending from Horus which is what gives the royal family legitimacy and I think he wanted this tradition to be kept in future . I also think that as Hatshepsut’s body was left intact  and wasn’t demolished   this is a key point in thinking about how Thutmose’s thought of hatchepsut ,by leaving her body he guaranteed her eternal life surely if he hated his stepmother why wouldn’t he destroy her body taking her right and giving her a final death .Also the fact that hatshepsut and thutmose didn’t attempt to kill each other why not if their was ill feeling ten they would have been each others main threat so that  makes me think they didn’t hate each other , also hatshepsuit trained him as a soldier and became head of the army she put him in the position to defeat her but he didn’t and she felt comfortable that he wouldn’t attack her. I think there relationship in life was good but in death he had to erase her to protect the traditions  of Egypt.

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Hatshepsut – Female Pharaoh

(18th Dynasty, New Kingdom)

Introduction – Hatshepsut’s context and achievements

Hatshepsut was unique in the history of ancient Egypt as she took the role of pharaoh for herself. Previous royal women had ruled as ‘Queen Regnant’,[1] as did later female royals, but none became actual kings. Hatshepsut was the first and last Egyptian woman to claim the full authority of pharaohs so successfully and for so long.[2]

Hatshepsut was the daughter of Thutmose I and his Great Royal Wife (Hmt-nswt wrt), Ahmose.[3] On his ascension to the throne, Hatshepsut married her half-brother[4] Thutmose.[5] Thutmose II ruled for seven years,[6] during which period Hatshepsut was his Great Royal Wife. Following his death, Thutmose III (son of Thutmose II and a lesser wife) came to the throne.[7]

Since the young king was only a child, Hatshepsut took the throne as queen regent – apparently she used the title God’s Wife (Hemt meter) because the only two names for the queen regent were King’s Mother (Mwt mswt) or King’s Wife (hemt mswt) and she was neither of those – before progressing to the status of queen regnant.[8] As Female King of Egypt, Hatshepsut was now co-ruler with Thutmose III, and had a set of royal names.[9] It was a bold step, and must have taken considerable strength of character. Of course, it cannot be supposed that Hatshepsut did not benefit from a strong support base.[10]

Hatshepsut’s achievements, however, went beyond the remarkable feat of gaining and holding the pharonic position for nearly 22 years.[11] Her reign also contains several more remarkable accomplishments. These include the following:

·         a successful and peaceful rule with no internal unrest

·         an extensive reconstruction program involving repairing monuments and temples damaged during the Hyksos occupation[12]

·         the construction of her massive mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri (as well as other monuments, including her kingly tomb)[13]

·         the famed diplomatic visit to Punt[14]

·         a military campaign in Nubia

·         other military activity in Palestine[15]

An examination of the motivation of Hatshepsut

It is difficult to analyze effectively the motivation of any ancient individual including someone as controversial as Hatshepsut, as the sources of evidence available are extremely limited. Much of the information on Hatshepsut’s personal motivation is usually speculation on the part of historians.[16] It seems Hatshepsut’s motivation stemmed from a firm belief in her right to the throne.[17] In fact, Hatshepsut – apart from the fact that she was a woman – had more successional right to the throne than either her former husband Thutmose II, or her step-son, Thutmose III.[18] Her belief in her right to the throne is expressed in the coronation reliefs at Deir el-Bahri.[19]

Evidently, Hatshepsut had enough of a claim to the throne to be able to succeed in gaining power.  Hatshepsut may have held this conviction of the right to the throne from an early age,[20] making it seem as though she merely bided her time until the opportunity arose to exercise that right.[21] It is possible that her motivation was due in part to her devotion to Amun.[22] It is impossible, however, to know for certain anything concerning Hatshepsut’s motivation.[23]

Some secondary historians have assumed her motivation was due to greed for power.[24] These kinds of assumptions are apparently pure speculation.

Egyptian society’s influence on Hatshepsut

Hatshepsut was the ruler of a civilization whose whole political worldview was governed by the past.[25] It was a civilization where the role of women was clearly supportive only.

In this environment, Hatshepsut ruled as female pharaoh. To rule as pharaoh, Hatshepsut had to follow ancient pharonic conventions, while at the same time incorporating a distinctly individual feminine image.[26] Hatshepsut’s official image, however, had to conform to the Egyptian concept of ma’at – essentially, this meant she would have to be portrayed as male,[27] since the pharaoh’s position involved intrinsically male elements.[28]

This tradition influenced official propaganda depictions of Hatshepsut. Apparently this dilemma concerning official portraiture caused some variety in representations early in her reign.[29] One scholar[30] put forward the opinion that Hatshepsut gradually and deliberately adopted the kingly image as her official identity.

Hatshepsut’s claims on the walls of Djeser Djeseru concerning her alleged divine conception were also the outworking of pharonic tradition. It was common for rulers of Egypt to strengthen their position with claims of divine parentage.[31] Since Hatshepsut wanted to have all the hallmarks of an Egyptian pharaoh, she included divine birth among her claims of right to the throne.

Hatshepsut’s whole approach to her rule was influenced by royal tradition.[32] Hatshepsut was also bound by the religious and social conventions of kingship.[33] In order to be successful in her rule, Hatshepsut needed a strong support base. This included the priests of Amun,[34] and several other capable men who ensured her success politically.[35]

Apart from royal tradition, Hatshepsut would no doubt have been influenced by the previous royal women in her family,[36] her father, and the religious devotion she held towards the god Amun.

Hatshepsut’s influence on Egyptian society

Hatshepsut had a considerable impact on the Egyptian society of the New Kingdom, as she initiated a radical precedent.[37] Considering the ancient Egyptian view of ma’at,[38] the idea of a female wearing the Double Crown for such a long time must have been disturbing to many Egyptians.

In view of the long tradition of male rulers, Hatshepsut had a massive impact on the politics of the ancient Egyptian state.[39] This momentous event was only the beginning.

In the realm of politics, Hatshepsut needed strong support.[40] In order to achieve this, “…she started to pick new advisors, many of whom, like Senenmut, were men of relatively humble birth.” (Tyldesley, 2006, p. 98). This policy gave her a body of men who were committed to keeping Hatshepsut in power.[41]

In addition to political impacts – and as a physical outcome of political changes – Hatshepsut had an important effect on ancient Egypt through her massive building program.[42] Her building projects included,

·         the restoration of temples damaged by the Hyksos invaders[43]

·         the construction of four obelisks at Karnak[44]

·         the construction of the famous temple at Deir el-Bahri[45]

·         the completion of buildings begun during the reign of Thutmose II[46]

·         the excavation of a royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings.[47]

Hatshepsut’s trading voyage to Punt was another event that had an effect on ancient Egyptian society. The evidence for this expedition is found on the Middle Colonnade walls of Djeser Djeseru, the temple at Deir el-Bahri.[48] The expedition to Punt indicated that Egypt under Hatshepsut’s rule was a stable nation.

While the pharonic tradition influenced Hatshepsut’s official portrayal of herself, her representations of herself – starting from queen regnant, and finishing up as pharaoh – also influenced Egyptian society.[49] Apparently, the official representations of Hatshepsut – both in writing and in statuary, changed somewhat gradually over the first few years of her rule.[50] Some of the representations of Hatshepsut in her statuary had lasting impacts – one granite statue shows a kneeling Hatshepsut making offerings to Amun: later this pose was imitated exactly for Thutmose III.[51]

Hatshepsut’s influence also had effects after her death. The destruction of her monuments was directly caused by her actions during her life. It is likely that Thutmose III found it politically necessary to undertake a campaign against his step-mother’s memory in order to bolster his own position.[52]

In addition, Hatshepsut’s support of the cult of Amun meant that the priesthood later had considerably more power and influence than previously.[53] The power Amun gained during her reign had considerable bearing on later pharaohs’ efforts to minimize the cult’s power.[54] This was probably her most lasting impact on the Egyptian society.

Conclusion

 Hatshepsut was a truly unique ruler. Though it is impossible to know much about Hatshepsut as a person, her actions as a ruler are fairly well documented.[55] Additionally, the influence her reign had on subsequent generations is vital knowledge for Egyptologists. Above all, Hatshepsut was lastingly human.[56]

References

• Barnier, J; Cameron, K; Hennessy, D; Kenworthy, G; Lawless, J. Studies in Ancient Egypt. Nelson, 1993.
• Bradley, P. Ancient Egypt: Reconstructing the Past. Cambridge, 1999.
• Brown, C. “The King Herself.” National Geographic April 2009: pp. 88 – 111.
• Byran, B. “The Eighteenth Dynasty before the Amarna Period.” In Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, pp. 218 – 271. Oxford University Press, 2000.
• Freeman, C. Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilisations of the Ancient Mediterranean. Oxford University Press, 1996.
• Gardiner, A.H. Egypt of the Pharaohs, Oxford University Press, 1961.
• Goedicke, H. The Speos Artimidos Inscription of Hatshepsut and Related Discussions. Halgo Inc. 2004.
• Hayes, W. C. The Scepter of Egypt, vol II, The Hyksos Period and the New Kingdom. Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1959.
• Lawless, J; Cameron, K; Kenworthy, G. Studies in Ancient Egypt. (Second Edition) Nelson, 2001.
• Merz, B. Temples, Tombs and Hieroglyphs, The Story of Egyptology. Victor Gollancz Limited, 1964.
• Nichols, M. “All pharaohs to be DNA tested.” http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/2007/1979448.htm (21st July, 2008).
• Queens of the Nile – Hatshepsut the Great (SBS, 2003: 1 June).
• Redford, D. History and Chronology of the Eighteenth Dynasty. University of Toronto Press, 1967.
• Robins, G. Women in Ancient Egypt. British Museum Press, 1993.
• Roehrig, C; Dreyfus, R; Keller, C. Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh. Yale University Press, 2005.
• Roth, A. “Models of Authority: Hatshepsut’s Predecessors in Power.” In Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh, edited by Catharine H. Roehrig, pp. 9 – 13. Yale University Press, 2005.
• Steindorff, G. & Seele, K.C. When Egypt Ruled the East. University of Chicago Press, 1957 and 1963.
• Tyldesly, J. Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt: From Early Dynastic Times to the Death of Cleopatra. Thames and Hudson, 2006.
• Watterson, B. Women in Ancient Egypt. Alan Sutton Publishing, 1991.

[1] B. Watterson, Women in Ancient Egypt (Alan Sutton, 1991), p. 138.

These were:

·         Neith-Hotep and Meryt-Neith (Dynasty 1) See Bradley, p. 53.

·         Nitocris at the end of the Old Kingdom(c. 2180 BC) and

·         Sobekneferu at the end of the Middle Kingdom. Sobekneferu was also the first queen ever to carry all the titles of king. (c. 1790 BC). Callender, G. The Eye of Horus. Longman, 1993, p. 158.

[2] The wife of Djedkare-izezi (5th Dyansty) also appeared to rule as a pharaoh in her own right, but her monuments were so badly damaged that we do not even her name.

[3] Bradley, p. 270.

[4] He was the son of Thutmose I and a secondary wife, Mutnofret.

[5] Bradley, p. 270.

[6] N. Reeves, Akhenaten: Egypt’s False Prophet (Thames and Hudson, 2001), p. 32. Although the length his reign is debated by historians.

[7] Reeves, pp. 32 – 33.

[8] The position of queen regent was “…a position she soon discarded in favour of becoming queen regnant or, as she termed it, Female King of Egypt.” (Watterson, 1991, p. 139).

Even taking the position of queen regent was unusual, as this was usually the position of the young king’s mother.

[9] These were: “…Horus Wosretkaw, Golden Horus Netjeret-khau, Two Ladies Wadjet-renput, Daughter of Re Maatkare, Lady of the Two Lands, King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Hatshepsut-united-with-Amun.” (Roehrig, Dreyfus and Keller, 2005, p. 3).

[10] B. Merz, Temples, Tombs and Hieroglyphs, The Story of Egyptology, (Victor Gollancz, 1964), p. 169.

[11] Bradley, p. 279.

[12] Bradley, p. 298.

[13] Bradley, pp. 298 – 308.

[14] Bradley, pp. 309 – 314.

[15] Bradley, pp. 315 – 316.

[16] One possibility is put forward by Bradley: “Perhaps Hatshepsut assumed kingly powers because she was afraid that the young king [Thutmose III] might die in childhood (there was a high death rate among young royals) and she was anxious to secure the future for herself and her daughter.” (1999, p. 285).

[17] “Hatshepsut…took absolute power for herself, claiming that she was ruler by right as the heir of Thutmose I.” (Freeman, 1996, p. 34).

[18] Also: “Her [Hatshepsut’s] DNA had also been matched to Ahmose Nefertari, who Hawass described as Hatshepsut’s grandmother.” (Nichols, 2007).

[19] In the coronation reliefs, Hatshepsut relates an event that supposedly took place while her father, Thutmose I, was still alive. Hatshepsut claims that Thutmose I “…chose her has his heir and made her king.” (Barnier, et al., 1993, p. 128). Whether this incident actually occurred is not known; however, if the reliefs do refer to a genuine event, this could uncover at least some of Hatshepsut’s motivation for taking the throne.

[20] A stela inscribed during the reign of Hatshepsut’s husband, Thutmose II shows Hatshepsut standing behind Thutmose and the dowager queen, Ahmose. “…there is one interesting feature of this stela. It was inscribed during the reign of Thutmose II and yet the dowager queen, Ahmose, is referred to as King’s Mother.* Ahmose was the mother of Hatshepsut, not Thutmose II. This piece of evidence has contributed to the theory that perhaps Hatshepsut saw herself quite early on as having a legitimate claim to the throne.” (Bradley, 1999, p. 282).  *Note: King’s Mother in Egyptian is mwt nswt.

[21] B. Bryan, “The Eighteenth Dynasty before the Amarna Period,” in I. Shaw, eds., Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 237.

[22] Note: the divine birth reliefs may only indicate Hatshepsut’s careful manipulation of kingly legends – many other kings before her claimed divine parentage: hence, the divine birth reliefs may not indicate any extraordinary devotion on Hatshepsut’s part. See Bradley, p. 289.

More convincingly, in the Speos Artemidos Inscription, Hatshepsut speaks of her kingship in relationship to the god Amun: “Hatshepsut’s thoughts upon becoming king center on the god Amun. She apparently perceives her elevation as the consequence of the deeds she had carried out previously…she also indicates…her intentions to expand the ‘order of Amun’ during her regency. In numerous inscriptions she states her devotion for Amun, whom she considered her spiritual and genetic father.” (Goedicke, 2004, p. 10).

[23] Bradley comments, “It is highly unlikely that the question of why she felt the need to become king will ever be answered.” (1999, p. 285). Even so, she herself states it was because Amun wanted a beautiful pharaoh that he wanted a woman. She was saying that he had decreed it.

[24] “Meanwhile, however, her ambition was by no means dormant, and not many years had passed before she had taken the momentous step of herself assuming the Double Crown.” (Gardiner, 1972, p. 183).There has also been the assumption that Thutmose III resented Hatshepsut’s ambitious rule: “It must have been much against his will that the energetic young Thutmose III watched from the side lines the high-handed rule of the pharaoh Hatshepsut…” (Steindorff and Seele, 1957, p. 46). Also:

“…it was not long before this vain, ambitious, and unscrupulous woman showed herself in her true colors.” (Hayes, 1959, p. 82).

[25] “The kings and nobles of the Archaic Period established the pattern of kingship which lasted for approximately 3000 years, set up the institutions of an efficient centralised state and prepared the way for the incredible accomplishments of the Old Kingdom.” (Bradley, 1999, p. 61).

[26] Hatshepsut means ‘Foremost of Women’.

[27] “In representing herself as male, Hatshepsut was not being deceitful; she was simply conforming to the conventions of royal representation. (Roth, 2005, p. 9).

[28] The pharaoh of Egypt held a national fertility status – this was the reason for his name as Mighty Bull. This was just one of the male elements of kingship that Hatshepsut had to tackle.

[29] “Hatshepsut is shown in a man’s kilt (and body!) wearing the king’s crown and the artificial beard; and she is also shown as a woman, with feminine dress and the queen’s crown. The dichotomy carries over into other spheres: two tombs, one in the Valley of the Kings and the other in a lesser spot; two sarcophagi, one for a king and one for a queen.” (Mertz, 1964, p. 168).

[30] Tefnin, in La Statuaire d’Hatshepsout.

[31] Bradley, p. 289. Previously, this traditional claim had only been made by male rulers.

[32] “In conceiving her kingly role and presenting herself to the people, she took three groups as models: male kings, King’s Mothers, and queens regnant. From her association with each of these groups, Hatshepsut derived her legitimacy as female pharaoh.” (Roth, 2005, p. 9).

[33] “That she [Hatshepsut] did not step down after her co-regent was of age has been taken as a sign of Hatshepsut’s ambition, but in fact it is hard to imagine how she could have done so. She was not a King’s Mother but a king, and once crowned, no known king ever ceased to be king…the prospect of this lifelong commitment may explain Hatshepsut’s hesitation to take on the burden of kingship during the early years of Thutmose III’s reign.” (Roth, 2005, p. 9).

[34] Bradley, p. 318.

[35] Many of these were men already associated with Amun, such as the famous Senenmut, (chief steward of Amun) and Hapusoneb (high priest of Amun). See Bradley, p. 318.

For a more complete listing of people in Hatshepsut’s support base, see http://www.maat-ka-ra.de/english/personen/pers_all.htm (7th August, 2007).

[36] Tetisheri, Ahmose and Ahmose Neferrari.

[37] The precedent was that Hatshepsut reigned so successfully and for so long. Not enough is known about other ruling women of Egypt (such as Merytneith, and the wife of Djedkare-izezi), however to determine to what degree this precedent was a new one.

[38] or cosmic order.

[39] “…Hatshepsut was not afraid to flout tradition…By year 7 Hatshepsut had been crowned king of Egypt, acquiring in the process a full titular of five royal names…” (Tyldesley, 2006, p. 95). After her death, however, it was only about twenty years until her monuments became the target of Thutmose III’s political campaign of defacement. In view of this, it seems her direct impact was considerably lessened soon after her death. In fact, she was largely unknown in ancient times, and the only reference to her dating from after her death  is found in Manetho’s king list, where a female ruler is mentioned, but named Amessis.

[40] Gardiner comments, “It is not to be imagined…that even a woman of the most virile character could have attained such a pinnacle of power without masculine support.” (1961, p. 184).

[41] This commitment was likely based on their own interests: “…if she fell, they fell with her.” (Tyldesley, 2006, p. 98).

[42] “As ruler, Hatshepsut inaugurated building projects that far outstripped those of her predecessors.” (Bryan, 2000, p. 238).

[43] Bryan, p. 239.This is mentioned in the Speos Artemidos inscription.

[44] Bradley, p. 305. In addition to the obelisks, Hatshepsut also added  to the Temple of Karnak “…two groups of chambers flanking a sanctuary for the sacred boat of Amen.” (Lawless, Cameron, Kenworthy, 2001, p. 95).

[45] Bryan, p. 241.

[46] Bradley, p. 297.

[47] Bryan, p. 240. This refers to Tomb KV 20: possibly the first royal tomb to be built in the valley.

[48] J. Lawless, K. Cameron, G. Kenworthy, Studies in Ancient Egypt: Periods and Personalities (Nelson, 2001), p. 89.

[49] “The literary confusion is one of the few signs we have which suggest the bafflement of Egypt at its female king.” (Mertz, 1964, p. 168).

[50] Lawless, Cameron, Kenworthy, p. 85. Bradley comments, “…there appears to have been a period after she became king when she either experimented with a new image suitable for a female king or deliberately proceeded slowly in the adoption of a kingly identity.” [Emphasis added] (1999, p. 286).

[51] Lawless, Cameron, Kenworthy, p. 86. (see figure 6.7). Nevertheless, this pose was a traditional one.

[52] Thutmose III’s campaign against Hatshepsut’s monuments “…could be explained by assuming that Hatshepsut had died naturally and that Thutmose felt no resentment against her. He might then have been reluctant to mutilate her monuments; but as time passed by, political expediency might have won over sentiment, and he might finally have agreed that all traces of the unnatural female king should be erased, since they did not conform with maat, the natural order of the world.” (Robins, 1993, p. 52). Note: it is now certain through the discovery of Hatshepsut’s mummy, that she died naturally, as Robins suggests. This gives additional credence to such possibilities as Robins outlines.

[53] Bradley, pp. 317 – 319.

[54] Thutmose IV, Amenhotep III and most famously Akhenaten.

[55] Despite mutilated statues and reliefs, the labours of various archaeologists in piecing together damaged statues and other evidence has ensured Hatshepsut’s legacy is not forgotten. In addition, though some reliefs are badly damaged, many are decipherable (the divine birth scenes at Deir el-Bahri, for example), and some have not been damaged at all. Thutmose III at some point during his sole reign embarked on a mission of destroying Hatshepsut’s monuments – some scholars believe this was an attempt to bolster his own position as pharaoh: “Thutmose was motivated not so much by a genuine hatred as by political necessity. His own legitimacy stood in need of demonstration, and his own links with his illustrious grandfather Thutmose I had to be emphasized.” (Redford, 1967, p. 87). Furthermore, in support of his new religion, the pharaoh Akhenaten “…at some point ordered the mutilation of the images of Amun.” (Bradley, 1999, p. 324).

[56] “It struck me how much more of Hatshepsut was alive in her texts, where even after so many thousands of years, you can still feel the flutter of her heart.” (Brown, 2009, p. 110).

As follows are ten queen regnant from different historical periods ranging from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages to modern history:

Hatshepsut

The first female pharaoh to reign over ancient Egypt (1479 to 1458 B.C.). After her husband Thutmose II’s death, she became regent to her newly crowned young nephew Thutmose III, but would proclaim herself “Pharaoh” after a few years. An able leader, she conducted military campaigns in Nubia, re-established trade routes disrupted by the Hyksos invasion, and constructed the awesome temple complex at Deir el-Bahri.

Christina

“Christina on horseback” (1653) by Sébastien Bourdon

Queen of Sweden, dubbed “The Minerva of the North” for her love and patronage for the arts and culture. In 1632 when her father King Gustav II Adolf died in battle, she was immediately declared as “king” of Sweden at only six years of age. Educated as a prince, this very mannish but gifted ruler began to rule in her own right on her eighteenth birthday, and was able to effectively negotiate the Treaty of Westphalia bringing to an end the Thirty Years’ War in 1648. Overburdened by the pressure for her to marry, she relinquished the throne in 1654 in favor of her cousin Charles Gustav (Charles X), converted to Catholicism, and settled in Rome, where she died and was buried in St. Peter’s Basilica in 1689.

Artemisia I

“Battle of Salamis” (by Wilhelm von Kaulbach) in which Artemisia commanded five ships

The daughter of Lygdamis and tyrant queen of Halicarnassus, the only woman whom Herodotus attributed with manly bravery. In 480 B.C., she commanded five ships to assist her Persian ally under Xerxes in the Battle of Salamis; but when she found herself about to be captured by the winning Greek fleet, she deliberately crashed and sunk a Persian ship in order to deceive the Greeks into thinking she had changed sides, and thereby, to spare her life.

Razia Sultana

An unknown artist’s rendition of Razia Sultana

A thirteenth century Muslim ruler, the first female monarch to rule Delhi. She was chosen by her father, Iltutmush, over his many incompetent sons to be his successor. She started wearing man’s attire upon assuming the throne. She proved to be a capable leader both in the battlefield and in court, establishing law and order in her country, and successfully playing the game of politics to rally support to her side.

Septima Zenobia

Zenobia, portrait bust (Vatican Museum, Rome)

Queen of Palmyra (267 to 273 A.D), known for her exceptional beauty and courage. She was also well educated, able to speak Latin, Greek, Syriac and Coptic. She ascended the throne as regent of her infant son Vaballathus upon her husband Odenathus’ death. She personally marshaled troops into battle decisively vanquishing the Romans, conquered parts of Asia Minor and annexed Egypt claiming to be a descendant of Cleopatra and Marc Antony.

Maria Theresa

Portrait of the Empress Maria Theresa of Austria by Martin van Meytens

Archduchess of Austria and queen of Hungary and Bohemia (1740-1780), the only female empress of the 650-year history of the Habsburg dynasty. Being the eldest, she succeeded her father, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI; however, her accession triggered the War of Austrian Succession which was instigated by Frederick the Great of Prussia in his desire to claim the throne for himself. Strong-willed and ambitious, her many successful reforms included government centralization, establishment of the supreme court, abolition of capital punishment, power restrictions of local nobles, founding of military and engineering science academies, regulation of serf’s obligation and education support for the peasantry.

Catherine the Great

Catherine the Great (1783), painting by Dmitrij Grigorevic Levickij

Empress of Russia, well-known for the many lovers she had during her reign. In 1762, she, with the support of the Imperial Guard, took part in a bloodless coup that ousted her husband Peter III and had herself proclaimed empress. Under her rule from 1762 to 1796, she was able to annex Southern Ukraine and Crimea to Russia through warfare, promoted the arts and education and transformed St. Petersburg into one of the most impressive European capitals.

Elizabeth I

“The Ermine Portrait of Elizabeth I” (c1585) by Nicholas Hilliard

The daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife Anne Boleyn, nicknamed the “Virgin Queen” (as she never married) and “Gloriana.” Her 45-year reign (1558-1603), commonly referred to as the “Golden Age of England,” was an era of prosperity and great accomplishments, as follows: Church of England established; commerce flourished; North America colonized; Spanish Armada defeated and the world circumnavigated by Francis Drake; and arts and literature thrived with celebrated writers as Shakespeare, Marlowe and Spenser.

Isabella II

“Queen Isabella II of Spain” (1852) by Franz Xavier Winterhalter

The eldest daughter of Ferdinand VII by his fourth wife Maria Christina of Bourbon. She became Queen of Spain in 1836, because her father was able to persuade the Cortes Generales to set aside the Salic law which precluded all females from inheriting the throne. However, her corrupt handling of politics, military misalliances, tyranny and religious zealotry brought about the Glorious Revolution resulting in her exile to Paris in 1868 and her abdication in 1870 in favor of her son Alfonso XII, whose rule officially started in 1874.

Wu Zetian

The lone female emperor in China’s history. During the seventh century Tang Dynasty, she ruled with an iron hand, instituted a secret police force that did not hesitate to jail, exile or execute anyone who dared to oppose her. Though despotic, she was a capable ruler treating the peasants fairly; lowering taxes; improving infrastructure and agricultural productivity; recruiting qualified people to government through exams; and even allowing women to be educated. She initially reigned in her husband Emperor Gaozong’s and her sons’ name but would eventually declare herself “emperor” under the new Zhao Dynasty.

More History

• Warrior Women